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LIBRARY OF THE Oo FORTHE ~® eae
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THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
Manne Serveutfurad Expert vation
ORONO, MAINE
1917
UNIVERSITY OF MAINE
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Oil MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, WEMONIE
ote Wal i toe. ORGANIZATION: Tes TO Toe 1917.
THE STATION COUNCIL
PRESIDENT ROBERT J. ALEY, DIRECTOR CHARLES D. WOODS, CHARLES L. JONES, Corinna, FREELAND JONES. Bangor ~ THOMAS V. DOHERTY, Houlton, JOHN A. ROBERTS,
EUGENE H. LIBBY, Auburn, WILSON W. CONANT, Buckfield, State Pomological Society FRANK S. ADAMS, Bowdoinham, State Dairymen’s Association LEONARD C. HOLSTON, Cornish, Maine Livestock Breeders’ Ass’n. WILLIAM G. HUNTON, Readfield, Maine Sced Improvement Ass'n.
President Secretary
Committee of Board of Trustees
Commissioner of Agriculture State Grange
AND THE Heaps AND AssociATES oF STATION DEPARTMENTS, AND THE DEAN OF THE COLLEGE oF AGRICULTURE
THE STATION STAFF
CHARLES D. WOODS, Director
ADMINIS- BLANCHE F. POOLER, Clerk TRATION GEM C. RUSSELL, Stenographer JANIE Ly PAYEE: Stenographer
RAYMOND PEARL, Pu. D., Biologist
[ FRANK M. SURFACE, Pu. D., Biologist
BIOLOGY MAYNIE R. CURTIS, Pu. D., Assistant JOHN R. MINER, B. A., Computer
MILDRED R. COVELL, Clerk
JAMES M. BARTLETT, M. S., Chemist
HERMAN H. HANSON, M. S., Chemist
CHEMISTRY JOHN H. PERRY, Assistant Ele RR a) OBEY. Bar Se Assistant
HARRY C. ALEXANDER, ENTOMOL- { EDITH M. PAG GiG Shae Ds OGY | ALICE Wea Za Wen RSI IEE, WARNER J. MORSE, Pu. D.
PLANT {MICHABIC “SHAPROVALONVE EME Ss
PATHOLOGY )\ {GLEN B. RAMSEY, A. M., DONALDS) CLARK JACOB] ZINN Acr2 Ds ©) HARRY | WEIAGE. JEREMIAH E. SULLIVAN. HIGHMOOR § WELLINGTON SINCLAIR, FARM | WALTER E. CURTIS, ROYDON L. HAMMOND, CHARLES C. INMAN,
AROOSTOOK FARM
+In collaboration with U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Laboratory Assistant
Entomologist
Laboratory Assistant
Pathologist Assistant Assistant
Laboratory Assistant Assistant Biologist Scientific Aid Superintendent Superintendent Scientific Aid
Seed Analyst and Photographer
Assistant
MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ORONO, MAINE.
ORGANIZATION JULY To DECEMBER, 1917. THE STATION COUNCIL.
PRESIDENT ROBERT J. ALEY, President DIRECTOR CHARLES D. WOODS, Secretary FREELAND JONES, Bangor, | Container THOMAS V. DOHERTY, Houlton,
FRANK E. GUERNSEY, Dover, | Board of Trustees JOHN A. ROBERTS, Commissioner of Agriculture EUGENE H. LIBBY, Auburn, State Grange WILSON W. CONANT, Buckfield, —. State Pomological Society FRANK S. ADAMS, Bowdoinham, State Dairymen’s Association
LEONARD C. HOLSTON, Cornish, Maine Livestock Breeders’ Assn.
WILLIAM G. HUNTON, Readfield, Maine Seed Improvement Ass'n.
AND THE HEADS AND ASSOCIATES OF STATION DEPARTMENTS, AND THE DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE.
LAE SPATION (SiAnB:
CHARLES D. WOODS, Sc D. Director
ADMINIS. | MARIAN AVERY Clerk PON | ESTELLE M. GOGGIN Stenographer RAYMOND PEARL, Pu. D., Biologist*
FRANK M. SURFACE, Pu. D., Biologist*
JOHN W. GOWEN, Pu. D., Assistant
BIOLOGY SIEVIAS PARIGER TAU BY Assistant JOHN R. MINER, A. B., Computer*
NEED RED Res COVERT: Clerk
ERESIOE NAS RING: Laboratory Assistant
| weRwe IES BYAUR ITIL IE ID INS IMLS Chemist
HERMAN. H. HANSON, M. S., Chemist
HELENS TENS | HAROLD L. KING, B. S. Assistant WO NIAS | J: SEUADN BAY, Laboratory Assistant
ENTOMOL- Gale Dae Ei Mes Aun GH) iP Ae gD:. Entomologist OGY )PSEICEVWiLAVIER TLE, Laboratory Assistant
( WARNER MORSE era’ Pathologist
PLANT {MICHAEL SHAPOVALOV,. M. S: Assistani PATHOLOGY *GLEN B. RAMSEY, A. M., Assistant VIOLA Ey MORRIS, Laboratory Assistant
JACOB ZINN, Aer. D., Assistant Biologist AROS INO" Ve HARRY WHITE, Scientific Aid a a ERENMING (SULLIVAN: Superintendent HIGHMOOR | WELLINGTON SINCLAIR, Superintendent FARM PEW TIBI IBS: CU RAP US Scientific Aid ROYDON L. HAMMOND, Seed Analyst and Photographer CHARLES C. INMAN, Assistant
* Absent on leave during period of war. + In collaboration with U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The ublications of this Station will be sent free 1 to any. addr Maine. All requests should be sent tom
CONTENTS:
@ryeanization “of the Station....-:...5-...:- Bene neiewine sre ccncece PATNI GCTMETIES HE bese erence Aa cater sei eval eience ea eyatiolvevaJaie'el evedatscetayletots lea. sliitemStationisand: thesswate:. closers eo lseins cise cine ere cre eel sols enereioss: ove ‘Chainges: sta SeAsonve Such igen. abo paid Gero bomuE ao tect ann camoeae Neglected factors underlying stock breeding industry (Bulletin
TD MRO sire tld Sea SaO NS SAU oy Giais ads vamealt ays erode awe sie Susle carats Pupae of some Maine species of Notodontoidea (Bulletin 259)... iNcemsneepe prolitable ina Maine; (Bulletins 260). soe oe oes: Are swine profitable in winter in Maine (Bulletin 260).......... The winter handling of farm manure (Bulletin 260).......... Commercial varieties of oats at Aroostook Farm in 1916 (Bulletin
ZIOO))) 2: i gl oa ae pac ear eee aL Ace Arar ee SMe Aree Ene ni ee reais Ha Commercial varieties of oats at Highmoor Farm in 1917 (Bulletin
YSD)) 5 5 etek Sip RR ieanetar Eee I Pr oe ea PRN ER Rate of seeding oats in Aroostook County (Bulletin 260)....... Effect of omitting potash upon the oat crop (Bulletin 260)...... Effect of omitting potash upon potatoes (Bulletin 260).......... Sulphate of ammonia compared with nitrate of soda as fertilizer
hotmepotatoes,. (bulletinesZ60) ini cies cceroe eis one cia cae mavens Methods of application of fertilizer upon potatoes (Bulletin 260) Saliapacwnentilizer a @BulletimZO0))eisncuse ceva crwncre eiis seticesteeaie Report of progress on Animal Husbandry Investigations (Bulletin
ZAG. AS Eats ee IR ao NE OSES Ct er teak Change of milk flow with age (Jersey cows) (Bulletin 262).... Syrphidae of Maine, Second report (Bulletin 263)............ siiemcuGnent tui ty-aCBulletin=264)) ss. 2c cece ccs icine cle oe ae Mae guleler aileey tyectakes (Cexeileinin Ao) sonesoaooa sdouedondaudo0ssec Composition of sprouted oats (Bulletin 266)..... SEE Sy atin govehcrs Fish wastes for feeding animals (Bulletin 266).................. sihemapuids, or; chokecherry., (Bulletin: 267) <2 c.4 00. ss wee ee cere Abstracts of publications in 1917 not included in Bulletins or
@fficralkelnspectionss(Bulletinw268) rs eas cece eee Mieteorolooyme GE ulletinne 268) merren ass noes mirror raat isis cin isle eels Nepoueotethemlreasuners((BtulletinuZ68) mi sor ecirole s cicliccens dexastor ml Ol/a< (Bulletin, 26S) iis icruyetorctoisvee taste clases 5 clave mi xetese
102
104 106 108 110
114 117 119
121 145 153 177 249 286 291 293
297 315 317 320
ANNOUNCEMENTS.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATION.
The Maine Fertilizer Control and Agricultural Experiment Station, established by Act of the Legislature approved March 3, 1885, began its work in April of that year in quarters fur- nished by the College. After the Station had existed for two years, Congress passed what is known as the Hatch Act, estab- lishing agricultural experiment stations in every state. This grant was accepted by the Maine Legislature by an Act approved March 16, 1887, which established the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station as a department of the University. The reorganization was effected in June, 1887, but work was not begun until February 16, 1888. In 1906, Congress passed the Adams Act for the further endowment of the stations established under the Hatch Act.
The purpose of the experment stations is defined in the Act of Congress establishing them as follows:
“Tt shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to conduct original researches or verify experiments on the physi- ology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative advantage of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of manure, natural and artificial, with experiments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective states or territories.”
vill Ma NE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
The work that the Experiment Station can undertake from the Adams Act fund is more restricted and can “be applied only to paying the necessary expenses for conducting original researches or. experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States, having due regard to the vary- ing conditions and neds of the respective states and territories.”
INVESTIGATIONS.
The Station continues to restrict its work to a few important lines, believing that it is better for the agriculture of the State to study thoroughly a few problems than to spread over the whole field of agricultural science. It has continued to improve its facilities and segregate its work in such a way as to make it an effective agency for research in agriculture. Prominent among the lines of investigation are studies upon the food of man and animals, the diseases of plants and animals, breeding of plants and animals, orchard and field experiments, poultry investigations, and entomological research.
INSPECTIONS.
Up to the close of the year 1913, it had been the duty of the Director of the Station to execute the laws regulating the sale of agricultural seeds, apples, commercial feeding stuffs, com- mercial fertilizers, drugs, foods, fungicides and insecticides, and the testing of the graduated. glassware used by creameries. Beginning with January, 1914, the purely executive part of these laws is handled by the Commissioner of Agriculture. It is still the duty of the Director of the Station to make the analy- tical examination of the samples collected by the Commissioner and to publish the results of the analyses. The cost of the inspections is borne by fees and by a State appropriation.
OFFICES AND LABORATORIES.
The offices, laboratories and poultry plant of the Maine Agri- cultural Experiment Station are at the University of Maine, Orono. Orono is the freight, express, post, telegraph and tele- phone address for the offices and laboratories.
ANNOUNCEMENTS. 1x
ARoostooK FARM.
By action of the Legislatures of 1913 and 1915 a farm was purchased in Aroostook County for scientific investigations in agriculture to be under “the general supervision, management, and control” “of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. The farm is in the town of Presque Isle, about 2 miles south of the village, on the main road to Houlton. The Bangor and Aroostook railroad crosses the farm. A flag station, “Aroos- took Farm,’ makes it easily accessible by rail.
The farm contains about 275 acres, about half of which is cleared. The eight room house provides an office, and home for the farm superintendent. A school house on a lot adjoining the farm was presented to the State by the town of Presque Isle and after being remodeled serves as a boarding house for the help. A green house and a potato storage house have ~ been erected at the farm by the U. S. Department of Agriculture for use in cooperative work on potato breeding. The large barn affords storage for hay and grain and has a large potato storage house in the basement.
HicHMoor Farm.
The State Legislature of 1909 purchased a farm upon which the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station “shall conduct scien- tific investigations in orcharding, corn, and other farm crops.” The farm is situated in the counties of Kennebec and Andros- coggin, largely in the town of Monmouth. It is on the Farming- ton Branch of the Maine Central Railroad, 2 miles from Leeds Junction. A flag station, “Highmoor,” is on the farm.
The farm contains 225 acres, about 200 of which are in orchards, fields, and pastures. There are in the neighborhood of 3,000 apple trees upon the place which have been set from 20 to 30 years. Fields that are not in orchards are well adapted to experiments with corn, potatoes, and similar general farm crops. The house has 2 stories with a large wing, and con- tains about 15 rooms. It is well arranged for the Station offices and for the home of the farm superintendent. The barns are large, affording storage for hay and grain. The basement affords limited storage for apples, potatoes and roots. A sub- stantially constructed building for apple packing was erected in IQI2.
x MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. PUBLICATIONS.
The Station is organized so that the work of investigation is distinct from the work of inspection. The results of investi- gation are published in the bulletins of the Station and in scientific journals, both foreign and domestic. The bulletins for the year make up the annual report. The results of the work of inspection are printed in publications known as Offi- cial Inspections. These are paged independently of the bulle- tins and are bound in with the annual report as an appendix thereto. Miscellaneous publications consisting of newspaper notices of bulletins, newspaper bulletins and circulars which are not paged consecutively and for the most part are not included in the annual report are issued during the year. Weekly mimeo- graph publicity letters are sent to all papers within the State.
' All the bulletins issued by the Station are sent to the mem- bers of the staffs of other Stations and the U. S. Department of Agriculture who ask for them, to all newspapers in Maine, to libraries and to agricultural exchanges. Bulletins which have to do with general agriculture and the Official Inspections which bear upon the feeding stuffs, fertilizer and seed inspections are sent to a general mailing list composed chiefly of farmers within the State. The publications having to do with the food and drug inspection are sent to a special list including all dealers in Maine and other citizens who request them. The annual report is sent to directors of experiment stations and to libraries. Copies of all publications are sent to the newspapers within the State and to those on the exchange list outside of the State.
BULLETINS ISSUED IN IQI7.
No. 258 Some Commonly Neglected Factors underlying the Stock Breed- ing Industry. 28 pages. One illustration.
No. 259 Pupae of some Maine Species of Notodontoidea. 58 pages. 5 pages plates.
No. 260 Barn and Field Experiments in 1916. 36 pages.
No. 261 Report of Progress on Animal Husbandry Investigations in 1916. 24 pages.
No. 262 The Change of Milk Flow with Age as Determined from the Seven Day Records of Jersey Cows. 8 pages. One illustra- tion.
No. 263 Syrphidae of Maine—Second Report. 24 pages. 5 pages of plates.
PUBLICATIONS. Xi
No. 264 The Currant Fruit Fly. 70 pages. 5 pages of plates.
No. 265 The Biology of the Alder Flea Beetle. 36 pages. 4 pages of plates.
No. 266 The Chemical Composition of Green Sprouted Oats. Fish ‘Wastes as food for animals. 8 pages.
No. 267 The Aphid of Choke Cherry and Grain. 4 pages. One page of plates.
No. 268 Abstracts of papers not included in Bulletins, Finances, Me- teorology Index. 36 pages.
OFFICIAL INSPECTIONS ISSUED IN 1917.
No. 81 Commercial Agricultural Seeds 1916. 28 pages.
No. 82 Miscellaneous Drug Preparations. 8 pages.
No. 83 Maine Packed Blueberries, Corn and Sardines. 16 pages.
No. 84 Commercial Feeding Stuffs, 1916-17. 68 pages.
No. 85 Commercial Fertilizers, 1917. 28 pages. MIscELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN IQI7.
No. 532 Official Daughter-Dam Test. 4 pages.
No. 533 Official Daughter-Dam Test. 1 page.
No. 534 Official Daughter-Dam Test. 1 page.
BrIoLoGicAL PUBLICATIONS, 1917.
In the numbered series of “Papers from the Biological Laboratory”: 100. The Experimental Modification of Germ Cells. 1. General plan of Experiments with Ethyl Alcohol and certain Related Sub- stances. By Raymond Pearl. Journal of Experimental Zoology,
Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 125-164.
101. The Experimental Modification of Germ Cells. 2. The effect upon the Domestic Fowl of the daily inhalation of Ethyl Alcohol and certain related substances. By Raymond Pearl. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 165-186.
102. The Experimental Modification of Germ Cells. 3. The effect of Parental Alcoholism and certain other Drug Intoxications Upon the Progeny. By Raymond Pearl. Journal Experimental Zool- ogy, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 241-310.
103. The Probable Error of a Difference and the Selection Problem. By Raymond Pearl. Genetics 2: pp. 78-81.
104. On the Differential Effect of Certain Calcium Salts upon the Rate of Growth of the Two Sexes of the Domestic Fowl. By Raymond Pearl. Science, N. S., Vol. XLIV, No. 1141, Pages 687-688. 3
105. Some Effects of the Continued Administration of Alcohol to the Domestic Fowl, with Special Reference to the Progeny. By Raymond Pearl. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 675-683.
Xl Ma NE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
106. A Note on the Fitting Parabolas. By John Rice Miner. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 91-95.
107. Some Commonly Neglected Factors Underlying the Stock Breeding Industry. By Raymond Pearl. Annual.Report of the Maine Agricultural Experiment, Station for 1917. Bulletin 258, pp. 1-28.
108. The Probable Error of Mendelian Class Frequency. ‘By Dr. Ray- mond Pearl. American Naturalist, No. 603, pp. 144-156.
109. The Selection Problem. By Raymond Pearl. American Naturalist, No. 602. pp. 65-91.
110. Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl. XVII. The Influence of Age upon Reproductive Ability, with a description of a New Reproductive Index. By Raymond Pearl, Genetics, Vol. 2: 417-432.
111. Report of Progress on Animal Husbandry Investigations in 1916. By Raymond Pearl. Annual Report of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station- for 1917. Bulletin 261, pp. 121-144.
112. Studies on Oat Breeding-V: The F, and F, Generations of a Cross between a Naked and Hulled Oat. -By Jacob Zinn and Frank > M. -Surface. Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. X, No. 6. Washington, D. C,, pp. 293-312.
113. Studies on Imbreeding VII—Some Further Gontideratene Regard- ing the Measurement and Numerical Expression of Degrees on Kinship. By Dr. Raymond Pearl. American Naturalist, Vol. LI, No. 609, pp. 545-549.
114. Sex Studies. By Alice M. Boring and Resmiond Pearl. Anatomical Record, Vol. 13, No. 5, pp. 253-268.
117. The Change of Milk Flow with Age, as Determined from the Seven Day Records of Jersey Cattle. By Raymond Pearl and S. W. Patterson. Annual Report of the Maine Agricultural Experi- ment Station for 1917. pp. 145-152. Bulletin 262.
118. Studies of Imbreeding. VIII. A single Numerical Measure of the Total Amount of Imbreeding. American Naturalist, Vol. LI, No. 610, pp. 636-639.
119. The Sex Ratio in the Domestic Fowl. By Raymond Pearl. Pro- ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. LVI, No. 5, pp. 416-436.
ENTOMOLOGICAL PAPERS FROM THE MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 1917.
Ent. 88. Eastern Aphids, New or Little Known Part 1. By Edith M. Patch. Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. 10, No. 4.
Ent. 90.. Pupae of some Maine Species of Notodontoidea. By Edna Mosher. Bul. 259, Me. Agr. Exp. Station.
Ent. 92. An Infestation of Potatoes by a Midge. By Edith M. Patch. Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. 10, No. 5.
Ent. 93. The Biology of the Alder Flea Beetle. By William C. Woods. Bul. 265, Me. Agr. Exp. Station.
.
PUBLICATIONS. Xili
Ent. 94. Syrphidae of Maine—Second Report. By C. L. Metcalf. Bul. 263, Me. Agr. Exp. Station.
Ent. 95. The Aphid of Choke Cherry and Grain, Aphis pseudoavenae. By Edith M. Patch. Bul. 267, Me. Agr. Exp. Station.
Ent. 96. The Currant Fruit Fly. By Henry H. P. Severin. Bul. 264, Me. Agr. Exp. Station.
THe STATION AND THE WAR.
In April at the time of the annual meeting of the Station Council the work of the Station for the preceding year was reviewed. This as usual covered work completed during the year, published and unpublished, work begun that would natural- ly be continued and plans for new lines of investigation. The whole plan along usual lines with some advances was adopted. The declaration of war followed quite shortly after this meet-
‘ing. But for the few first weeks the work of the Station went on uninterruptedly. Plantings were made at both farms as usual and in accord with the plans approved by the Council. The usual amount of hatching at the poultry plant proceeded normally. The regular lines of investigation were entered upon. The usual special summer staff in entomology came to the Sta- tion early in June.
The National Academy of Séiences had in the preceeding fall appointed a committee on Agriculture with special view to war needs of which Doctor Raymond Pearl, Biologist of the Station, was the chairman. A meeting of this committee was _ held in Washington in May. President Wilson had previously asked Mr. Herbert Hoover, who had charge of the feeding of the Belgians under the Belgian Relief, to come to the United States to take charge of the food supply in America. Although legislation was still pending the administration had a_ pretty well thought out plan of action. At that time and later develop- ments confirmed and- strengthened this judgment, the most important branch of food service was thought to lie along statis- tical lines such as the amount of food in each country of the world, their normal production, their war production, their nor- mal needs, their war needs and the same statistical information regarding the production, consumption, and possible exportation surpluscof the United States. Mr. Hoover asked Doctor Pearl to’come to Washington for the period ofothe war and take charge of this department of the Food~Administration. The
XIV Ma NE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
project from the start was a large one and has been a constant- ly increasing one. Doctor Pearl felt the need of people that he knew and whose judgment he could rely upon to immedi- ately assist him. This resulted in the Food Administration asking that the Station release for the period of the war Doctor Frank M. Surface, biologist to the Station and Mr. John Rice Miner, Computer in the Biological Department of the Station. Leaves of absence for the period of the war without salary were granted Doctors Pearl and Surface and Mr. Miner. They went to Washington the last of June, 1917. Expert clerical help was needed. The salaries offered were greatly in excess of what the Station could afford. This resulted in the two long exper- ienced clerks, Miss Pooler and Miss Fayle, resigning from the Station and accepting positions with the Food Administration at Washington. After licensing of food manufacturers and dealers was adopted as a war measure the Food Administration - needed to take charge of one of its divisions a man educated as a chemist and experienced both from the field and office stand- point with food inspection. For this work they chose Mr. Her- man H. Hanson who had been associated as chemist with the work of this Station for many years. Leave of absence for the period of the war without salary was granted Mr. Hanson and he went to Washington in December.
Very soon after the declaration of war a meeting was called at the office of the Commissioner of Agriculture at Augusta to consider what could be done to promote agricultural production in Maine. After discussion at a morning meeting a committee was appointed to draw up a line of action to submit to the after- noon session. At the afternoon session the program as sug- gested by the committee was adopted and the committse was instructed to bring the whole matter to the attention of the Executive Committee of Public Safety. The Executive Com- mittee adopted the plan, named Mr. Donald Snow of the Execu- tive Committee as Chairman of the Maine Public Safety Committee on Food Production and Conservation. The Director of this Station was named as oze of the other 7 members. This committee has met almost weekly and directly and through committees appointed by it has planned and coordinated the efforts made during the past year to increase the production and the conservation of food. This has taken about 20 per cent of the time of the Director since May, 1917.
PUBLICATIONS. XV
With the danger of fuel shortage the Congress passed control laws and a Federal Fuel Administrator was appointed with very broad powers. He in turn appointed a Fuel Admin- istrator in each State to each of whom were delegated the powers of the Federal Administrator. With the increasing shortage of fuel coal attention was turned to the use of fuel wood to replace fuel coal so far as possible particularly in house- hold use. Fuel Administrator Hamlen for Maine, appointed the Director of this Station as chairman of the State Fuel Com- mittee for Maine, and delegated to him the powers of the Fuel Administration for handling fuel wood. This is taking quite a considerable amount of time.
Ordinarily the ‘Station Staff does no work at all analogous to extension service. But the needs of the year called for expert direction of the work along the lines of insect and plant disease control. Doctor Edith M. Patch, Station Entomologist, has acted as leader for the work along insect control and Doctor Warner J. Morse, Plant Pathologist to the Station, has acted as leader along plant disease control. As part of his work in connection with the Fuel Administration the Director has acted as leader in improvement wood lot cutting demonstrations.
It will be noted that the Station has granted leave of absence for the period of the war to 4 of its ablest workers and has partly diverted for war needs the time of 3 others of its most impoitant staff members. Although all of these accepted the added war work with enthusiasm and have endeavored to have it interfere as little as possible with Station activities it has not made it possible to maintain the Station program entact. In common with the rest of the Country the Station is glad to “do its bit.”
CHANGES IN STAFF.
The temporary changes are noted in the preceding section. Gem C. Russell, Stenographer, Doctor Maynie R. Curtis, As- sistant Biologist, John H. Perry, Assistant Chemist, Harry C. Alexander, Laboratory Assistant (Chemistry) Donald S. Clark, Laboratory Assistant (Plant Pathology): Blanche F. Pooler, Clerk and Janie L. Fayle, Stenographer resigned at the end of the fiscal year although the services of part were retained for a few weeks later.
XVi Ma NE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
Marian Avery, Clerk, Estelle M. Goggin, Stenographer, Silvia Parker, Assistant Biologist, Helen A. Ring, Laboratory Assistant (Biology), Viola L. Morris, Laboratory Assistant (Plant Pathology), Harold L. King, Assistant Chemist were appointed for the year beginning July 1, 1917 although not all of them reported for work at once.
The Station was very fortunate in securing the services of Doctor John W. Gowen as Assistant Biologist during the period of the war to continue lines of work that would have suffered otherwise. Doctor Gowen did post graduate work at the Uni- versity of Maine. His major was under Doctor Pearl and along the lines of animal husbandry investigation. When Doctor Pearl was called by the Food Administration Doctor Gowen was just completing his work for the doctorate at Columbia Uni- versity. He brought to the Station the skill and experience that he had obtained from his work under Doctor Pearl and the broadened view from 2 years of study at Columbia Univer-
sity. THE STATION PLANT.
There have been few changes in the plant during the year. At Aroostook Farm the Federal Department of Agriculture in addition to the green house built last year has constructed a potato storage house with office for the use of the Department Horticulturist. The whole plant at Orono and both Experiment Farms have heen maintained in good order and in high efficiency.
BULLETIN 258. SOME COMMONLY NEGLECTED FACTORS UNDER- LYING THE STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY-
By RAYMOND PEARL.
THE BREEDING INDUSTRY.
Animal-breeding as an industry lies at the foundation of animal husbandry, which in turn is a basic element of the art of agriculture. Before any of the domestic animals. can be used to provide food or clothing for mankind, the animals themselves must be produced. It is the function of the art or craft of animal-breeding to produce the world’s supply otf domestic animals of all kinds.
An attribute of living organisms, which fundamentally differentiates them from non-living matter, is the faculty of self-reproduction. Certain cells of the body in all higher ant- mals are able, under suitable conditions, to go through a process of development which has as its end result the production of a new individual of the race or species. Through these cells (known as reproductive cells, or gametes) the animal has the power of reproducing itself. A new and distinct individual existence 1s brought into the world. Nothing like this is known in the inorganic realm. The stone in the field is not capable, through any self-initiated or self-perpetuated activity, of caus- ing the coming into existence of a new stone, essentially like itself in form, size, structure, chemical composition and every other quality. Only plants and animals—in other words, living things—can do this.
*Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural - Experiment Station, No. 107.
The substance of this paper was presented as an address before the Maine Live Stock Breeders’ Association at its meeting in Augusta, December 5, 1916. The introductory portion is a reprint, with some slight changes and corrections of typographical errors, of a paper entitled “The Animal-Breeding Industry,” published in the Scientific Monthly, July, 1916, pp. 23-30.
2, MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QI7.
It is this fundamental attribute of self-reproduction which the art of animal-breeding makes use of for the benefit of mankind. The breeder attempts to direct and control the reproduction of certain species and varieties of animals which possess qualities that are of value. Thus the breeder of dairy cattle endeavors so to control and direct the reproduction of these an:mals that he shall be able to produce cows which will yield a large amount of milk. The beef-cattle breeder tries to produce animals which carry on their frames a large amount of meat of good edible quality. The sheep-breeder has for his object to bring about the plentiful reproduction of animals bear- ing a large amount of wool. And so on, always the breeder is trying to control, guide and direct a fundamental biological pro-_ cess (reproduction) in such way that the product may be most valuable to him in some direction, either utilitarian, esthetic or other. The more complete this control is, and the more defi- nitely it 1s directed towards a particular desired end, the greater is the success of the breeder.
Man’s needs or fancies have led to the production of many and diverse breeds of the domestic animals. In every civi- lized country special breeds and sub-breeds or varieties have been developed to meet the particular conditions prevailing there. In the number of such specialized and diversified races . of animals, all of which must have come originally from a very small number of unspeciakzed ancestral forms, is perhaps to be found the most striking measure of the degree to which man has developed and extended his control over the natural pro- cesses of reproduction. Some idea of the extent to which this differentiation and specialization of animals for particular ends has been carried may be gained from Table I. This table shows the number of different breeds and varieties of farm live stock which are found in the British Isles.” Some are local varieties, but still distinct. All these are essentially native British breeds. Other countries, especially the older ones, show in greater or less degree the same conditions. They have developed breeds of live stock to suit their own special needs and fancies.
“This table is compiled from “British Breeds of Live Stock,’ Lon- don (Board of Agriculture and Fisheries’), r1oro.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. 3
TABLE I. Showmg the Numbers of Different Breeds of British Live Stock.
Number of Distinct British Breeds and
Kind of Stock ; Varieties ISLOAFSES "GO Sr ARB Occ es AORN ae ee SY ARLE ane 17 IBGE CaS” Gee RRs Ae Cee Rani Che Weta Den nO Na aU Tae 13 BD hisvamcacllereint ys sym eh ic) eu ate en Pek ag SLs ks Gi SLC D) ype Si Ee OR Ge ee EE A IS Rg UAL 34 SHI. Y's dG Ses crise ATA ME ey Me A Ny aaa Oe UN ARS 8
It is evident from this table that the skill of the English breeder has well justified the reputation it has created for the British Isles as one of the chief sources of the pure-bred live stock of the world.
To produce the world’s supply of domestic animals, which we have seen to be the business of the animal breeder, is a task of great magnitude. Resort must be had to statistics’ if any just conception is to be formed of the extent and im- portance of this breeding industry. We shall confine our atten- tion to the United States, remembering that except in certain rather restricted lines, the animal-breeding industry in this country has as yet had no special or intensive development.
The following table shows the number of living domestic animals of various kinds which were on farms in the United States on January I, 1912, together with their estimated farm value. The figures take no account of the vast number of horses, for example, which are not on farms.
®Counting the Dairy Shorthorn as a distinct variety.
4*The raw data on which the following statistical discussion is based are taken from the official returns of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture, as published in the Yearbooks. The writer is, of course, responsible for the treatment of these figures here developed and for the deductions made. .
The fact that the statistics here used are three years old in no wise invalidates the conclusions. Essentially the same conclusions would be reached from a survey of the stock-breeding industry in any normal year. Of course just at the present time industrial conditions of all sorts, including stock-breeding, are upset by war conditions. On that account, indeed, it is altogether probable that the facts as here pre- sented give a much more nearly normal picture of the industry than would statistics for the years 1914 or LOIS.
A MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I917.
TEA ee
Number and Value of Farm Live Stock in the United States on January I, 1912.
Kind of Stock Number Value EUOTS Spat geet ree ie teen ears: Ha RPS aye 20,509,000 2,172,604,000 SW ECU occysniee ast Neca uantant iemeh( Mia ats, OTN is oe ees 4,362,000 544,359,000 IM BU cloman(ee han (ea 2hah Hie trio cineca cis oS alolw a oielGior 20,699,000 815,414,000 Other cattlen(chichiyaabeat) erence 37,260,000 790,004,006 SINGS ie 8 aero erer me aaa eaten hooper Scans hie 52,302,000 181,170,000 AS DAUM ery eer ae nia Wes ROTI Lah IN, Sia gery ces 65,412,000 523,32%.c00 PLE {O eH os Mesa seas eal is Wie Pech neo aS Isat eran 200,602,080 $5,027,020,000
Each one of these two hundred million animals was pro- duced by a definite breeding operation. Somewhere some- body, with more or less care and thought as to the result, mated together two animals to produce each one of the indi- viduals or litters which lumped together give this enormous total. The mere statement of such large figures conveys little impression to the mind. Let us try by comparison to see what the figures really mean. If all the live stock on farms in the United States on January 1, 1912, had been sold at a price such as to realize the estimated farm value in cash, and then the money so obtained, had been equally divided, each individuai man, woman and child in the country would have received as his share from this transaction $54.66. Furthermore the farm value of live stock represented an amount sufficient to pay the whole principal of the public debt of the United States (equal to $2,906,750,548.66 on October 1, 1913) nearly twice over.
This same sum of money would support the common schools of the United States for more than 12 years, assuming the same rate of school expenses as obtained in 1908-09. The mules or the swine each alone, if converted into cash, would pay all the common school expenses for more than a year, the cattle for four years, and the horses more than five years. The sheep of the cquntry on January I, 1912, were worth more than one and a half times as much as the entire property (lands, build- ings, equipment, etc.) of all the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in the United States in 1910, the last year for which figures were available when this was written.
STOCK. BREEDING INDUSTRY. 5
The figures given do not tell the whole story of the magni- tude of the animal-breeding industry of the country. They deal only with the live stock actually on the farm. Besides this are the exports to be reckoned with. Table III gives the facts regarding exports.
TABLE III.
Number and Value of Live Stock Exported from the United States During the Year Ending June 30, 1911.
Kind of Stock Number Value TEIGHE@S. | 2.58 8S FSR eee CUMS oO E em cares 25,145 $3,845,253 Iles \- RABE BUMS ae Gace oe Fecicman nner 6,585 1,070,051 MOTD Me eee Oras cin evans aye itiive nicdeee araraetas 150,100 13,163,920 SHaSE > oc Ree See eee an Oe een 121,491 636,272 SipPUHS + “ppl ahes ce PE es Beton ae SII ee ies ca ety eae 8,551 74,032 TT oiiaill «Gp Gare SE BS OOS Tee Re eter erties cave 311,872 $18,780,528
Over against the exports are to be set the imports. Animals are imported into the United States for purposes falling into two general classes. On the one hand, are the imports, mainly from European countries, of superior animals to be used as breeding stock. The ultimate object of such importation is the improvement of the live-stock of the country. On the other hand, there are some importations of animals for purposes of slaughter and utilization in other ways than breeding. The live- stock imports of each of these classes for the fiscal year 1910-11 are given in Table IV.
ABER VE
Number and Value of Live Stock Imported into the United States During the Vear Ending June 30, TOIT.
= |
Kinp oF Stock. Why Imported. Number. Value. TOTSC Se een Seda de ee. For breeding purposes ...| 6,331)/$2,055,418 SMI cee inca ciate tach ugrereheeeeay< “other oe 3,262 636,656 ‘Chie. 4s ye ee eee, cree APOE ‘* breeding 2,441 362,220 MaRMREE Rte ie thse stand chat aradencwe re “other “ 180,482) 2,590,857 Sheep sets Sa ste Glare ees one “* breeding Pte 5,341 116,277 OE a ay NAO oe eT al ee ** other o Stet 48,114 261,348 ANGIE) estetae tes See DI Se Ee Atos e MN hte ele RAGA eid Ree ene RD 245 ,971|$6,022,776
6 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QI7.
From the figures given in the preceding tables it is possible to make some calculations to show average individual values. These are of interest because they furnish some indications of the cash value which rewards attention and care devoted te the breeding of animals. Let us first consider the average values of the different kinds of live stock on the farm. These figures will furnish a base with which comparisons may be made. They measure in a crude way, but still a real one, the stage of development or progress which the live stock breeding industry of the country has attained. Table V gives the figures, calculated from the data given in Table II above.
TABLE V. Average Values of Live Stock on the Farm.
Average Value of
Kind of Stock the Individual TENORS Ss seca nee aegis tae ese ee Tae ea eae Re oe ae $105.94 Mite sayy ee crue ead fond lie es irae mutts pela ARM alten ee 124.80 UM ISU aines(CXOn i Ste eva cte pts 5 eyasic me ONT Slee Renan Cathet oti ie ne IR a ate 39.39 Othericattl eioN ewer ssn Commas kas) eo N oe Ai ee 21.20 SiGe pikes tek ack gaa eco OR Snr Recta She obs aay ia 3.47 S110 ie ote Ps een Oe IR dete Pate ty OM ete Bek a lire 8.00
It is to be expected that animals chosen for export will be on the average of somewhat better quality than those left on the farm. A part go out of the country for breeding purposes, and these will have a powerful effect in raising the average value of exported stock. In accordance with expectation, the average values for exported stock are seen in Table VI to be in every case somewhat greater than those for farm stock. The relative amount of this increase, shown as the percentage which the difference in values is of the farm value, is given for each class of stock in a third column of the table.
mae au
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY.
N
TABLE VI.
Average Values of Live Stock Exported.
Percentage Increase in Average Value of Ex- Average Value ported Over Farm
Kind or Stock of Individual Live Stock TFIGHSAS A a ee eee ocean epee Su52i02) a! 44.3 ONGC SA, Re nor rere? Dear ae 162.50 30.2 (Caitdle:scea eee oe are ln 87.70 216.7° ICE its ales situa 5.24 51.4
+ SORTASE eae ae ae es 8.66 8.2
While the relative increases of value seen here are respect- able, considered by themselves, they are insignificant in com- parison with these exhibited in the valuation of animals imported for breeding purposes. The figures for the latter are shown in Table VII, which is calculated in the same way as Table VI.
WEAN BIEIs AUD
Average Values of Live Stock Imported for Breeding Purposes.
Percentage Increase in Average Value of Im- Average Value parted Over Farm
Kind of Stock of Individual Live Stock fel@iSeSper ret ncs ere arene $324.66 206.5 (CRITE ETS ee ea ee 148.39 435.8 SME CWE ee a. tii cele os 21:77 520.2
Taking these figures at their face value, for the moment, they indicate that the average horse imported into the United
States for breeding purposes is worth three times as much as
the average horse on an American farm. The average cow or bull imported is worth nearly five times as much as the average cow or bull on the farm; while the average imported sheep is more than six and a quarter times as valuable as the home product on the farm.
These figures furnish an impressive object lesson as to the value of paying attention to the breeding of live stock. Funda- mentally the enhanced valuation of the imported animals resis on the fact that they are better bred than the average farm
*Calculated on the basis of weighted mean of the two classes of cattle distinguished in Table V.
8 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQI7.
stock here. Their qualities all approach the ideal more closely. But they have been brought to that condition by the practice of skilful, well-planned and carefully executed breeding.
The statistical data so far presented regarding the breeding industry have been drawn from official returns and cover the country as a whole. They suffer from the defects of such statistics. While they show the general relations in a substan- tially correct way, they tend to reduce to a minimum differences of all kinds. In the case of the last comparison made, the indicated difference in average valuation between farm and live stock and that imported for breeding purposes is probably distinctly less than the true difference. A better comparison, and one which not only shows what careful breeding means to the farmer and to the nation as a source of wealth, but also shows that the foreigner has no monopoly on the production of fine breeding stock, is between average farm values and the prices realized at auction dispersal sales of pedigreed stock in this country. Let us examine a few figures of this kind.
Table VIII’ gives the average sale price of pedigreed beef cattle in all sales held in this country during the six years pre- ceding 1913.
The increase of these prices over the $21.00 of the farm cattle is obvious. The same considerations apply to other kinds of stock. At a Guernsey cattle sale held in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, March 20, 1912, 69 head were sold at an aver- age price of $377.26. Mr. H. E. Browning of Hersman, IIL, sold 41 Duroc-Jersey swine “of his own breeding” on December 19, 1912, at an average price of $173 per head. The contrast of this price with the $8.00 average on the farm is sufficiently striking.
The live-stock breeding industry of the world rests on a foundation of pure-bred pedigreed stock. The constant aim of the breeder from the earliest time has been to produce differentiated types particularly adapted to his locality, condi- tions and needs. Having once found or developed such a type, the breeder wishes to keep it. This he can only do if it “breeds
“Compiled by the Breeders’ Gazette and published in the issue of January I, 1013.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. G
TABLE VIII.
Average Prices Realized at Auction Sales of Pedigreed Beef Cattle.
- =
1912. | 1911. 1910. Name oF BREED.) | Sol hs i Ce S elie No. of, No. |Average No. of} No. |Average No. of} No. |Average sales. sold. price. | sales. sold. | price. | sales.| sold. price. | | | | | ae Short-horn..... 3 45, 1,882 $177 40 53) 2,258 $162 50 49) 1,999 $187 50 Hereford..=....-| 15} 957 180 40 19, 1,203) 160 50) 20 1,214 146 20 Aberdeen-Angus.. 12) 627 1388 95 13) 723) 143 60) 19 995 167 35 5 (Esa PR el ee [eran Seba Ui 167 | 083).30 Polled Durham. . 2) 83 132 85 1 42! 140 60) 3 74 115 00 Red Poll........ |e a 80) LO We2 tare pe eee eaaaee | 1} 41) 185 00 } i ! | 1909. 1908. 1907. |
NAME OF BREED.) | | a as haa eal | No. of| No. | Average No. of} No. |Average|No. of} No. |Average sales. | sold. | price. sales.| sold. | price. | sales. | sold. | price. } ! J
|
Short-horn...... | 78} 3,308.$159 00 59| 2,689'$146 50, 84] 3,608 $160 15
3} 50 00) 3) 97; 83 00
peers en 5 || 1-308) 12705] 15| 936/116 15|. 29] 1/358! 123 70 Rippelcene Ani gts! 131 '935| 189 00|_ 18| 955| 165 10| 18| 1,119| 134 75 ‘CMlOWay i... .. 2, 69-128 05 3| 136] 84 50 3, 123 139 05 Polled| Durham _. 2| 79) 129 45 6| 244) 124 50 3 106 130 35 REARS. | 3
35) 97 80) 1|
true.” It obviously could not be expected to breed true if at frequent intervals it were crossed with other types. The breed- ing of individuals all of the same general type, and belonging to a few family lines, could be safely left to the individual breeder in the earlier days of the industry. With the wider development of the industry this was no longer possible. It became necessary to have an official registration of pedigrees, which should be beyond any chance of manipulation by the breeder. In this way one wishing to purchase an animal of a particular breed would have definite and objective evidence that the individual was, in fact, of the breed it was supposed to be.
Out of this need have grown the systems of pedigree regis- tration in herd-books, stud-books and the like. In most coun- tries at the present time these registry records have an enhanced official status, because they are under governmental control and supervision. In the United States the control of live-stock registration is in some degree supervised by the Bureau of
10 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9QI7.
Animal Industry of the Federal Department of Agriculture, particularly so far as concerns the registration of imported animals.
The statistical data given in the foregoing discussion are by no means complete, but they serve sufficiently well the present purpose, which is simply to give some conception oi the magnitude of the live stock breeding industry and its impor- tance as a source of wealth to the nation. .No account has been taken of other than farm live stock, and such obviously represents only a part of the animals which somebody has to. breed to supply the needs of the people. Further, nothing has been said about poultry, which represents an important industry in itself. Altogether, however, the following statement by Heape,. in concluding a review of the value of the breeding industry in England, is as well justified by conditions in this country, as in the country for which it was written. He says:
All I have attempted is, to give such a broad idea of the number and value of live stock in the kingdom, as the careful consideration of evidence I have been able to obtain, permits. I have taken the utmost care to avoid exaggeration, and in this, at any rate, I have reason to think I have succeeded.
When it is recollected that the Board of Agriculture returns are below, may be IO per cent or even more below the correct figures; when it is recollected what a large proportion of the people in the country, farmers, dealers, shopkeepers, farm-laborers, working men of various kinds, and gentlemen’s servants, make their living in one way or another by means of stock; when it is recollected what a very large number of valuable animals there are in this country, as shown by a sale of yearlings at Newmarket, the prices obtained at the dis- persal of a herd of Shorthorns or a flock of Southdowns, the value of a successful horse on the turf, of a good hunter, polo pony, pair of carriage-horses or car-horses, of a couple of pointers, a spaniel, a bull- dog or lap-dog, etc., when such facts are borne in mind I do not think there can be found justification for objection to the final figures I have arrived at on the score of excess; and yet they show a total sum of nearly £450,000,000 invested in live stock in this country.
When to this is added the capital necessary to provide both buildings to house the stock, land on which to grow their food, barns, machinery, vehicles, harness and attendance, the total becomes so gigantic that I am surely justified in asserting: We have here an industry of enormous importance to the country, and one which merits far more attention than has ever yet been accorded to it.
“Heape, W., “The Breeding Industry,’ Cambridge, 1906.
a.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. If
Some Factors WuHicH MAKE FoR SUCCESS IN THE BUSINESS OF BREEDING.
In the preceding section we have seen that the pecuniary rewards of success in the business of breeding animals are generous. But it also appears clearly from the statistics that the general average quality of the live stock on the farms ot this country is deplorably low, and the returns to the breeder are correspondingly meager. What can be done to better this condition of affairs? Are there some obvious general prin- ciples which are being systematically neglected by the rank and file of the farmers? I believe that there are. Any farmer has it within his power to do certain things which will surely improve the quality of his stock, unless it is already of such high quality that further improvement is virtually impossible. And this last, we may be sure, is not a frequent condition of affairs. What then are some of these principles which we are. neglecting ?
THE TEST OF PROGENY PERFORMANCE AND ITS’ IMPLICATIONS.
For the practical breeder of any kind of animals one of the. most significant results which has come from the modern scien- tific study of genetics is the demonstration of the importance of what I have elsewhere termed the principle of the progeny test in breeding for performance. This principle may be stated in the following way. The only certain and sure test of the worth of an animal as a breeder is found in the actual per- formance of that animal’s progeny. The work of the last decade in genetics has led to a new conception of the mechanism of heredity which differs markedly from older views. The key- note to this conception is that it is the germ cell (egg or sperm) and not the body or soma which is the factor of primary impor- tance in inheritance. What the individual is like in respect to its personal, somatic’ characters is not determined by the-
"For the reader not familiar with the technical terminology of biology, it may be said that “somatic” is used in designation of those characters of the organism which pertain to all parts except the reproductive or- germ-cells. These reproductive cells are called “gametes.” We then have the adjective “gametic,’ meaning “pertaining to the germ cells,” in contrast to “somatic” meaning “pertaining to any or all parts of the- organism other than the germ cells.”
{2 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQI7.
somatic characters of its parents, but by the composition or constitution of the parental gametes. Thus the size of a bean is determined not by the size of its parent bean, but by the gametic constitution of the latter.
In the principle above stated “performance” is used in the broadest and most inclusive sense. It may mean performance in the show ring, at the butcher’s block, in the milk pail, at the shearing shed, in the trap nest, at the race track, in the pulling contest, etc. The essential point is that it is not pos- sible to tell with any certainty by looking at a cow, for example, or its pedigree, whether the heifers from that cow will be good ~ milkers. Nor does the fact that the cow herself is a superior milker ensure or prove that her heifers will be superior milkers. They may be or they may not. The only way to be sure about it is to try them. If they are good milkers then the use of that cow as a breeder is by just so much improving the quality of the herd. Again the fact that a bull’s dam made a great record at the pail does not ensure that his daughters will be superior milkers. We can only know whether he possesses the ability to transmit dairy productivity by getting the actual records from some of his daughters. Ii these records are good the breeding worth of the bull 1s presumptively high. At any rate we know in that case that he is not lowering the average quality of the herd. Nothing else can furnish the sure and certain kind of information which the actual progeny test furnishes.
The principle of the progeny test carries with it a certain implication as to the age to which breeding stock should be retained. Obviously if we are to profit from our knowledge as to the breeding worth of a bull gained by the progeny test we must have the bull alive and in breeding condition after we have made the test. This means that we must keep him in the herd longer than bulls are usually kept by Maine breeders. If a herd bull is disposed of before any of his progeny have reached an age where their performance as milkers, for ex- ample, can be measured, then clearly this guiding principle of progeny test is playing no part in the breeding of the herd. Without this principle in active operation the breeder is in much the circumstances of a mariner without a compass. Pro-
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. 13
gress towards a desired goal is possible, but it is likely to be by a very roundabout and haphazard route, and is sure to be very slow.
It is a matter of considerable interest to examine statistically the age of breeding bulls in the hands of progressive Maine farmers and breeders. Data on this point are presented in Table IX. It should be noted particularly that all ages re- corded in this table are the ages of the animals at the time when they were bred successfully. Each entry in the table is based upon what we call a “completed record.” Such a com- pleted record comprises, on the one hand, a service record, and on the other hand a birth record, which sets forth the facts regarding the calf born as a result of the service accounted for on the service record. The ages tabled here are the ages at the time of service.
The more important biometric constants from this table are shown in Table X.
TABEE WxXe
Showing the Age in Vears of Bulls Used as Breeders.
Absolute Age in years frequency Percentage
I 213 22.03 2 252 26.06
3 209 21.61 4 149 15.41
5 52 5-7 6 53 5.48 7 24 2.48 8 8 83 9 23 31 10 — — II = = 12 4 41 13 Bes ec 14 = == 15 a = 16 — = 17 = = 18 —— = Total 967 100.00
14 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. IQI7.
TABLE X. Showing the Chief Physical Constants for Variation in Age of Breeding Bulls. Constant. é | Bulls used as breeders. Mean or average age............... Ae AE Oho) a NHN ee Rect e | 2.921 + .037 years FEPINTedi stl akon RG Teer iste os Ee aes ata ey | 2.5894 .047 years
*Bhirdiquartil eva get ets mst ue csr eer Seer Re RCA) ROTA 3.8444 .047 years Standard deviation 1.722 + .026 years
D804) se LS IG
From these tables we note that the average age of the herd bulls used to sire the 967 calves included in the statistics was just under three years. The median age of these herd bulls was approximately two and a half years. This means that one-half of the calves were sired by bulls under two and a half years old at time of service. Seventy-five per cent of all the calves (as shown by the third quartile age) were sired by herd bulls less than about three years and nine months old at time of service. Less than 15 per cent of the calves were sired by bulls five or more years old. Let us consider for a moment what these facts mean. A bull must be at least four years old before the breeder can possibly have had any opportunity to test adequately the milk producing capacity of his daughters. But 85 per cent of all the calves covered in these statistics were sired by bulls under four years and 10 months of age. In other words, in the breeding operations of a large number of Maine’s most progressive and wide-awake breeders (for such — the codperators in this record scheme are) more than three- fourths of the calves produced in a given interval of time are sired by bulls about whose ability to transmit milking qualities absolutly nothing definite can by any possibility be known. It is doubtless entirely fair to assume that essentially the same conditions regarding cattle breeding methods obtain in other places generally. Is it remarkable that progress is so slow?
For comparison with these figures regarding Maine cattle in general let us examine the facts regarding the leading cows
Con
, STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. I
in two of the leading dairy breeds, Jerseys and Holsteins. The facts regarding 32 of the leading cows of the Jersey breed are given in Table XI, which includes the name of the cow, the date when she was dropped, her sire’s name, and the age of the sire at the time of conception of the daughter here dealt with. The ages of the sires are given ta the nearest year.
Taille, OSI
Showing the Age of the Sires of some Leading Jersey Cows at the Time of Service.
| Age at Name oF Cow. Date dropped. Srrr’s Name. time of service. Dosoris Park Lily 233783...... Dec. 15, 1908) Dosoris Park Golden Lad 76986, 2 DABS DOL bet OMA 2: oiecsed) neve ue) Noy. 26, 1906/Interested Prince 58224....... 6 Beaudesert’s Lass 211380...... Nov. 4, 1907|Rearguard 70962............. 2 Lass 83d of H. F. 289028...... May 26, 1911/H. F. Torono 60326.. 11 Golden Angela 225625......... May 7, 1907|Golden Lad of Berlin 75310. . 2) Raleigh’s Financial Hope 279450 Oct. 24, 1912|Queen’s Raleigh 88232........ | 2 ‘Golden Maid’s Rose of St. John! Imp. Golden Maid’s Prince)
DANOOR) 2G phtcie Aue eR eae ain May 16, 1907) GABOR eeu enone Nips mae ata 7 Lily Martin Figgis 209529..... Feb. 13, 1906 Marna’s Figgis Tormentor 69086) 2 Jacoba’s Loretta 251186....... May 22, 1909) Irene’s King Pogis 73182...... | 3 Figgis 97th of H. F. 273502... .|July 22, 1910) H. F. Pogis 9th 55552. 2 prod 11 Karnak’s Fontaine 250450..... Dec. 1, 1910 Karnek’s Noble OG. wien cs 2 Spermfield Owl’s Victor Lass
DHE TENG 2 as ks ReGen eB ne eee en Dec. 20, 1909|Spermfield Owl 57088......... | 10 Lass 73d of H. BF. 277540...... Mar. 14, LOM HEsBhorono GO236h8 eae 10 Dass 92d of H. F. 302072...... Heb: 5; 1912 H. is Dorono 602360.70. 5 2. ili Lass 89th of H. F. 300426.....)Nov. 3, 1911/H. F. Torono 60236........... ala Lass 74th of H. F. 281203..... Dec. 28, TOTO Pek sorono:602364.2- ee | | 10 Interested Jap’s Rose 306053. . .|Oct. 9, 1912) Meridale Int. Prince 86473... .} 3 Eminent’s Bess 209719........ July 1, 1905 La Rilla’s Eminent Lad 71770. .| 2 Jacoba Irene 146443.......... Apr. 35 ~1898| Kine of Corfu 50110). 325... 1 Sophie 19th of H. F. 189748. ..|Jan. 24, 1905' Fort Hill Farm Chief 62859....| 4 Spermfield Owl’s Temisia215982;May 1, 1907)Spermfield Ow] 57088........ s i Spermfield Owl’s Dawson192935, Aug.25, 1904\Spermfield Owl 57088......... 5 Lass 45th of H. F. 233488..... iDec. 2 190M. Lorono 60326%....55 62. a Lass 40th of H. F. 223642..... Mar. 5, 1907\/H. F. Torono 60326..... Soe 7 Lass 47th of H. F. 240327..... |\Mar. 23, 1908|H. F. Torono 60326........... 7 Lass 30th of H. F. 214511..... |\Mar.26, 1906/H. F. Torono 60326........... 5 Landseer’s Pacific Pear] 205097,Aug. 2, 1905| Landseer’s N. Exile 54626..... | 7 Gertie of Glynllyn 2d 206903 ..|Feb. 9, 1906) Rosaire’s Golden Lad 64554... 4 Pride of Hillerest 194087...... ‘|Dec. 5, 1905|Mabel’s Golden Sultan 70683. .| 2 Mary of Golden Letta 240917. .|Jan. 19, 1909 Golden Lad of Greenwood 64956) 6 Lass 38th of H. F. 223628. .|Jun. 10, 1906/H. F. Torono 60326. wee 6 Pearly Exile of St. L. 205101... July 15, 1906) Landseer’s N. Exile BAGG) oe. 8
Upon analysis of the figures in Table XI we see that in round numbers, only one (or 3 per cent) of these very high producing Jerseys was sired by a bull under 1} years old at the time of service; g (or 28 per cent) were sired by bulls under 2% years old at the time; 11 (or 35 per cent) were sired by bulls under 34 years old. All the rest were sired by bulls 34 or more years old. The contrast between these figures
16 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917. and those given above for Maine cattle in general is sufficiently bulls wall
necessarily get better or more productive heifers than young
S striking. This result does not mean at all that old >
bulls. Evidence that this 1s not necessarily so is seen even in the present table in the cases of Jacoba Irene, whose sire was only one year old at the time of this service, and Eminent’s Bess, whose sire was only two years old. What the result does mean is that those Jersey breeders who are breeding world’s record animals in the great majority of cases are pro- ducing those animals with tested sires, which they know from actual previous experience are transmitting to their offspirng high dairy qualities.
A graphic comparison of the facts as to age of sires of Maine cattle in general and of this group of high producing Jerseys is shown in Fig. 1. The cross-hatched areas above and below the four year line show in a striking way the pro- portionate number of offspring sired by old and young bulls in the two cases.
BREED FROM TESTED SIRES.
65% OF WORLDS RECORD JERSEY COWS ARE SIRED BY
AGE OF SIRE.
12 | BULLS OVER 4 YEAAS OLD
10
e|
ou va coo
rad Coo
goo — AOE 80ee ceo: ct 4 YEARS YO oS
*y eA IL ree BY TESTED FILLILL 85% OF MAINE CALVES ARE SIRED BULLS
0 BY BULLS UNDER 4 YEARS OLD
TT TE 60 70 80 90
PER CENT OF CALVES
Fig. 1. For further explanation see text.
Similar data for Holsteins are given in Table XII. Here we have 25 cows of outstanding productive merit as evidenced by 12 month records. The arrangement of the table is the
same as ‘n the case of Table XI.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY.
TABLE XIL
17
Showing the Age of the Sires of some Leading Holstein Cows at the
Time of Service.
| Age at Name or Cow. Date dropped. Sire’s Name. time of | y | serv. ice. | Banostine Relle De Kol 90441..'Jan. 2, 1906 Friend Hengerveld De Kol Buttermboya2930shu eee eee 4 Bon ae Clothilde De Kol 2d! GOOG Rea etna tees haere ‘Dec. 26, 1903 Pontiac Korndyke 25982...... 4 High-lawn Hartog De Koi 84319 Apr.17, 1905 Friend Hengerveld De Kol Butter Boy 29303..........| 3 Colantha 4th Johanna 48577...'Qct. 30, 1898 Sir Johanna 23446............ | 1 Daisy Grace De Kol 98228....|Dec.10, 1906 Friend Hengerveld De Kol | Butter Boy 29303.......... 5 Creamelle Vale 73357......... Feb. 13, 1904 Paul De Kol Jr. 24762........ 5 Aralia De Kol 55194....... Jun. 26, 1900 Ignario De Kol 23538..... 2 Caroline Paul Parthenea 77784 Sept.21 1903 Aaggie Parthenea Byronia 29775 2 Belle Netherland Johanna 62304 Oct. 11, 1902 Johanna Rue 3d’s Lad 26939. 3 Woodcrest Meta Vernon De Kol ; a SOOM a te ee elon |Jan. 4, 1905 Prince Johanna De Kol 31168. 2 Lunde Korndyke 75838....... April 6, 1904 mone ke Queen De Kol Prinee it QO ZDiE a Hee in Spee ee Spotted Ann Daughter 100270. Oct. 23, 1906 Friend MHengerveld De Kol | Butter Boy 29303.......... | 5 Haverside Sadie De Kol Burke) | GO MU Soren cne de ercbatcn sieisarsns a |Nov. 24, 1903'De Kol Burke 22991.......... 7 RontiacAntisOllil4e ey bees} July 11, 1902 Hengerveld De Kol 23102..... 5 Beauty of Plum 6th De Kol 2d| MOO SRO Baca materia, cis tite is sue ale Feb. 13, 1907 The Milk and Butter King41114 1 Sadie Vale Pietertje 79740. -;Oct. 29, 1904 Onions De Kol Paul 31341..... } 1 K. P. Lilith Clothilde 110228 . .| Nov 17, 1907 King of the Pontiacs 39037.... 2 Vale De Kol Elliston 87448. ‘Sept. 26, 1905 Onions De Kol Paul 31341..... 2 Pauline Queen Johanna 89407. .|Dec. 14, 1905'\ Johanna de Pauline 2d’s Lad) ; ZS3 OM eae eee eee e hots - K. P. Manor Kate 126416. .!. |pep. 18, 1909|Kine of the Pontiacs 39037. 3 Queen Juliana Dirkje 97608....|Dec. 12, 1906 Juliana King of Riverside 38446 2 Maple Crest Pontiac De Kol! MGaival OOO ee soso aenlews |Feb. 14, 1907 Pontiac Aaggie Korndyke 38291| 1 Spotted Lizzie 3d 91567....... jApr. 18, 1700 J onanne de Pauline 2d’s Lad hana aeeye3 OU es ee ee oa ised poo 5 Alma Kuperus De Kol Pietert‘e, | COD - Se Sea Sa Eanes Oct 23, 1903 Duke De Kol Pietertije 29365... 2 Pontiac Jewel 56976.......... July 24, 1901;)Hengerveld De Kol 23102..... 4
The facts in regard to Holsteins, if somewhat less strik-
ing than those for Jerseys, are still widely different from the conditions found in the cattle breeding industry of Maine. Four (or 16 per cent) of these 25 leading producers of the Holstein breed were sired by bulls under 14 years old at the time; II (or 44 per cent) were sired by bulls under 2} years old; 14 (or 56 per cent) were sired by bulls under 33 years old. All the rest (44 .per cent of the total) where sired by bulls 34 or more years of age at the time of service.
It is doubtful if there is any one thing which every breeder could do if he would, likely to work greater improvement in the average quality of the live stock of the state or nation than
to
18 MAINE, AGRICUETURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9Q17.
the faithful following of the policy of keeping every sire until it was definitely known, by the performance records of the first of his progeny, whether he was adding to or substracting from the productive value of the herd or flock. Prove the breeding worth of the sire. If it is poor discard him at once and get another. If it is good keep him as long as possible and by the multiplication of his desirable qualities in his off- spring make definite and sure progress.
CONTINUITY OF PURPOSE IN BREEDING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS.
The art of breeding is at once a conservative and a pro- gressive matter. It is conservative in the sense that it holds steadfastly to certain definite and relatively fixed ideals as to what the perfect animal should be. It is progressive in the sense that it bends every effort towards the attainment of those ideals. While it is, I think, unquestionable that these state- ments are true as general propostions it is unfortunately equally true that many breeders of animals exhibit in their practice rather striking exceptions to them. To the true breeder it is unbelievable, and indeed unthinkable, that there should be so many men as there are who breed without any definite ideals whatever before them. Again there are the so-called breeders whose ideals are perenially subject to change “without notice and without doubt.” Today one type or one family is the greatest, indeed the only hope of the breed to one of these men. Meet him a year hence and you will discover, somewhat to your astonishment and confusion, that a totally different type, or wholly foreign blood lines, offer the only chance to stay the rapidly progressing annihilation of the breed. It is a misuse of words to call such persons breeders. They belong mentally ~ in precisely the same category as the colored gentleman of the story who averred that he didn’t know where he was going, but that he was on his way. Success in breeding is possible only for the man who does know were he is going, that is who has a definite, and for him permanent, ideal as to the kind of animals which he wants to breed. This ideal is something which must be always in his mind as he makes his matings,
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. Ly
or studies pedigrees, or buys stock to add to his herd or flock, or sells stock from it. Lacking such a definite ideal the breeder is worse off than the mariner without a compass, because he not only lacks a means of guidance but also he has no notion of what port he would like to arrive at if he could.
If he is to be successful the breeder ,must not only have an ideal but must also stick to it, and not change it every time he makes a mating. This implies that the breeding must fall within definite and rather narrow blood lines. It may fairly be said that some degree of narrow breeding (line
breeding or inbreeding) is an essential for the highest success
in breeding.”
This may seem a radical statement, but a careful study of the history of the best improved strams of live stock of all sorts leaves no room for doubt that the attainment of the highest degree of excellence has always been associated with the practice of a very considerable amount of inbreeding, of rather close degree. It is a curious paradox of animal husbandry in general that while, as a matter of fact, every successful breeder of high grade stock practices inbreeding to a greater or lesser extent, a great many of these men are violent, even fanatical, Opponents to inbreeding in theory. Most of them will deny stoutly that they ever practice inbreeding. They contend that they practice “line breeding,’”’ but never, never “inbreeding.”
The distinction here is obviously verbal and not biological, being in its essentials precisely similar to that between Tweedle- dum and Tweedledee. What is called “line breeding” is simply a less intense form of narrow breeding than that which is called “inbreeding.” The essential and important biological point is that what is actually done is to purify the stock in respect to all characters to as great degree as possible. What the suc- cessful breeder aims to do is to get his stock into such condi- tion that he has only one kind of “blood” in it. Expressed more precisely, though unfortunately more technically, it may be said that the breeder endeavors to get his stock homozygous
“The following discussion of narrow breeding is based upon. that contained in a paper entitled “The Biology of Poultry Keeping” by R. Pearl, published as Bulletin 214 of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, 1913.
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20 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I9Q17.
with reference to all important characters or qualities. The quickest way, indeed the only way, practically to obtain this result is by the practice of some degree of inbreeding. Some- times a great stride towards the desired end may be made by mating brother and sister or parent and offspring together.
That a mating of such close relatives will surely result in disaster is one of the carefully nursed superstitions of breed- ing, which has often been exploded, but will doubtless always be with us. It may be said that all the evidence which may be gleaned from the experience of stock breeders indicates that the results which follow inbreeding depend entirely upon the nature of the individuals inbred. If one inbreeds weak animals, lacking in constitutional vigor, and-carrying the deter- minants of undesirable qualities in their germ cells, the off- — spring resulting from such a mating will undoubtedly be more neatly worthless than were their parents. If, on the other hand, one inbreeds in the same way strong and vigorous ani- mals, high in vitality, and carrying the germinal determiners of desirable qualities there may be expected a corresponding intensification of these qualities in the offspring. The time has come when a vigorous protest should be made against the indiscriminating condemnation of inbreeding. It should be clearly recognized that if the experience of stock breeders ex- tending throughout the world, and as far back as trustworthy data are available, means anything at all it plainly indicates that some degree of narrow breeding is an essential to the attainment of the highest degree of success in the breeding of animals.
This contention receives full support from the results of modern exact studies in genetics Such studies show that the personal bodily characters of the parents have no causal rela- tion to the personal characters of the progeny. What the pro- geny shall be like is determined by the constitution of the germ cells of the parents. When by a proper system of selective breeding the point is reached where these germ cells are pure with reference to a particular character, or degree of a char- acter, then that character will unfailingly appear in the off- spring, in the degree of perfection in which it is represetned
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. 21
in the germ cells. This is the highest goal of the practical breeder. But in sexually reproducing organisms like the domestic animals purity of the germ cells with respect to the determiners of any character is only to be obtained, in the hands of a practical breeder without special scientific training, by the practice of inbreeding.
It should be clearly understood that indiscriminate inbreeding without definite purpose or reason 1s not advised or advocated. What we do mean is this: all successful breeding is the work- ing out of carefully made plans looking toward the attainment of a definite ideal. In those plans narrow breeding has a place.
Introduction cf new blood for purposes of rejuvenation or reinvigoration is, as ordinarily done, one of the surest ways to prevent any real or permanent improvement of stock by breeding. The difficulty here is that when one introduces new blood he runs the risk of introducing a whole set of characters mfertor in their degree of perfection to what he already has in his own stock. As a matter of fact the average breeder is usually much too ready to introduce now blood. If one is breeding in certain definite blood lines and getting good results he should be exceedingly conservative about introducing any new blood, and should only do so when he has absolutely sure evidence that it is actually necessary for one reason or another.
There are two main reasons which induce the breeder to go out after new blood. The first is a fear of the evil conse- quences of inbreeding. This fear is usually, im the particular case, absolutely without foundation in fact. Yet how widely prevalent is the idea among the cattle breeders of Maine that at least as often as once in every three or four years one must go out and buy a new bull. It passes all comprehension that any intelligent person could expect to make steady progress 17 breeding on such a system.
Again the careful breeder sometimes finds himself in this situation. He has by well planned and executed breeding brought his stock up to a particular level of excellence. There the improvement stops. His animals breed true to that par- ticular degree of quality but cannot be made to attain a higher degree. In other words, he has substantially purified his stock
22 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917. td
relative to the characters which interest him. But he sees that the stock of some other breeder is measurably better than his. [f A is to get his stock up to the B level he must introduce some B blood. This has long been the breeder’s procedure, and 1f done in the right way, it is found to be as successful in practice, as it is justifiable in theory in the light of modern ideas respecting inheritance. The danger in the matter in such a case as this under discussion all turns on the way in which the thing is done. If one feels it to be desirable, for the reason specified, to introduce “new blood” let him by all means do it gradually, and not swamp the whole stock with the new germi- nal combinations all at once. For if he does he may destroy in this way at one blow results which have taken years of careful breeding to build up.
TAB SUPERIORITY OF DHE PUREBRED:
The necessary, intrinsic expense involved in breeding and rearing a purebred animal is no more than that involved in breeding and rearing a grade or a scrub. The end product is worth a great deal more in the former case than in the latter, on the average. These considerations being true, and [ think they cannot be successfully controverted, it would seem to be the most obvious of sound business principles to keep and breed only purebred, registered livestock.. Yet the propor- tionate number of farm animals which are purebred must be very small indeed.
The chief reason for the/relatively small proportion of pure- bred animals is fairly evident. Most farmers keep animals solely for their immediately productive or useful qualities. They are in no true sense breeders and make no attempt to realize the additional profits which would accrue from com- bining a breeding business, on however small a scale, with a producing business. The farmer of the sort mentioned is prone to compare in his mind the productive qualities of the best of his grades with the poorest purebreds he has ever seen or knows about, to the detriment of purebred animals in general. He is then apt to take the general position that it would not pay to buy purebred animals for a foundation stock to breed from.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. 23
The argument on which this extremely prevalent point of view is based is essentially a fallacious one, because it overlooks certain very pertinent considerations. In the first place while it is true that the best grades are much better than the poorest purebreds in productive qualities, and indeed may in some cases rank with the best, it is also true that’ the general average productivity of purebred animals is higher than that of non- purebreds.
In the second place there can be no comparison between purebred animals and non-purebred animals, considered as ' groups or on the average, in regard to extent to which they transmit good qualities to their offspring. The purebred animal is, on the average, narrow-bred or line-bred to a much greater extent than the grade or scrub. This means that the likelihood of any particular individual transmitting good qualities which it may possess to its progeny is by so much enhanced.
In the third place, the breeder of purebred animals is not depending, as is the breeder of grades, solely on their produc- tive qualities as a source of income. If he is handling pure- breds the offspring are a standard commodity to which a more or less definite rating as to value attaches automatically. If he is breeding scrubs or grades the offspring are apt to be more or less troublesome and unprofitable by-products of his manufac- turing business. The dairyman for example who keeps only grade cows has no market whatever for his bull calves except as meat. When sold for this purpose he is sure to get small returns for them. On the other hand, the dairyman whose herd is made up of purebred animals at once has opened out before him the possibility of an additional and better market for his bull calves. He can sell them for breeding purposes and in this way realize much more than meat prices for them.
Finally, the breeder of purebred, registered live stock at once identifies himself with a large and powerful organization, namely that of the registered live stock interests of the country. The extent of these interests is indicated in Table XIII which is based upon a table published by Dinsmore.”
ele ialle eee a : 5 : x ie Dinsmore, W. [he registration of pedigrees.” Breeders’ Gazette. Vol. LXX, p. 881-882, 1016.
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26 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. I0©17.
From this table it appears that the number of purebred registered animals in this country is increasing at the rate of nearly half million a year. Nearly 200,000 breeders of such purebred live stock are recording their animals at the present time. All of these interests are united in the National Society of Record Associations. The purposes of this Society are stated in its constitution as follows:
“To advance the interests of all registry associations by de- vising and perfecting practical methods of preserving pedigrees of purebred animals; by united effort endeavoring to secure the enactment of equitable laws relating to record associations ; by securing the adoption of just rates by the railroads on exhibition and breeding stocks, and also to do and transact such other business as will, in the judgment of such society, advance the interest of breeders of purebred stock through. their respective registry associations.”’
Regarding the results which have been obtained by this National Society of Record Associations, and the significance of the Society for the breeder, the following statement by the Secretary, Wayne Dinsmore,” is of interest:
“In the five years that have elapsed the various associations, working through the National society, have defeated some hostile legislation, aided in shaping some that was favorable and given wider publicity to the work which the individual associations are trying to accomplish. They also took up exist- ing abuses in the shipment of breeding animals in less than carload\ lots (i @. —. shipments), and, atter the! tailmjeson negotiations to secure proper concessions. from the railroads, carried the case to the Interstate Commerce Commission.”
The breeder of grade animals stands in a business way prac- tically by himself. The breeder of purebred animals auto- matically become allied with an extensive and powerful organ- ization. There can be no doubt, from a strictly buisiness point of view that in this regard alone the man with the purebreds enjoys an enormous advantage over the man who keeps only non-purebreds, grade or scrub, animals.
“Dinsmore, W. Loc. cit. p. 882.
STOCK BREEDING INDUSTRY. 27
CONCLUSION.
In this paper I have tried to show, first, the importance o7 the live stock breeding industry as a business, and second, how the neglect of some rather obvious and easily remedied matters, holds back the more successful development of that business in many particular cases. One ‘must not, however, hastily draw the conclusion that if he attends strictly to the things which are pointed out in this paper as being commonly neglected, he will surely attain success in the breeding business. There are many more factors involved in the case than have been discussed here. Perhaps the most fundamental of all is the man himself. By no means everyone can become a suc- cessful breeder of live stock. The art of breeding demands personal qualifications which are rather rare. Bates, the great Shorthorn breeder, once said: “Hundreds of men may be found to make a Prime Minister for one fit to judge the real merits of Shorthorns.”” The man who 1s to be a real breede: and a successful one must start with a love for animals and a natural instinct for handling them. Without these qualifica- tions he can never be a breeder in the highest sense of the word. Furthermore, the real breeder is always a student, with the instincts of the scientific investigator. He studies his animals and their pedigrees till he knows them thoroughly. He studies the pedigrees of all the leading animals in his breed. He attends live stock shows, fairs, and sales that he may study the best individuals of the breed.
Besides all these things the successful breeder must know how to feed, care for, and develop his animals properly. The most excellent individual may be ruined by improper care. So then along with knowledge and skill in the art of feeding must go an expert ability to recognize condition in an animal, to detect and correct the slightest impairment of health and vigor.
Altogether the real breeder must combine many and varied abilities with his natural love for good animals. And what is the reward? To the real breeder it is great and manifold. He will have the satisfaction and emoluments of a creator of some-
sore.
28 MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, IQI7.—
thing new and needed. The world will always need better animals and be prepared to pay for them. How well it will pay, everyone who reads live-stock journals knows. Prices for breeding animals numbered in five figures are of such frequent occurrence as to excite only passing comment. Furthermore the joy of creating these new and better animal types is the breeder's. In some degree he may justifiably feel that he is guiding the forces of nature to the working out of an ideal, which is his.
BULLETIN 259
PUPAE OF SOME MAINE SPECIES’ OF NOTODON- TOIDEA.*
EDNA MOSHER.+ INTRODUCTION.
It is only in recent years that entomologists have realized the value of studying the immature stages of insects, although immature forms are responsible for more damage to crops than adults. Now that the need for such studies is felt, it is surpris- ing how very little we really know about the subject. The pupae have rarely been considered even from the standpoint of the systematist, much less from that of the economic entom- ologist. Nevertheless it is important to be able to recognize an insect pest at any stage of its life-cycle, even if it does no dam- age while in that stage.
These studies of the pupae of some of the commoner forms found in Maine will, it is hoped, lead to the easy recognition of the species described, and awaken an interest in this stage of the insect’s life history.
The pupae were, for the most part, obtained by collecting the eggs or larvae and rearing them to maturity in order to identify the species, as will be necessary until the larval and pupal stages are more carefully studied. This work was done during the summer of 1915, but the season was not a favorable one for rearing Lepidoptera, being very cold and wet. Many of the specimens died of fungous or bacterial diseases, the Geo- metridae being especially hard to rear successfully. In some
*Papers from the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station; Ento- mology No. 90 and contribution from the Entomological Laboratories of the University of Illinois, No. 54.
+Member of the Station Summer Staff.
The synonymy used is, for the most part, that of Dyar’s check list.
50) MaIneE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
cases the life history has been supplemented by material from the author’s private collection. The adults were identified part- ly by Dr. T. H. McDunnough of Decatur, Illinois, and partly by the author, while Dr. W. T. M. Forbes identified larvae of several species.
MORPHOLOGY.
The pupae described here belong to the type known as ob- _ tected pupae because all of the appendages are firmly soldered to the body wall and have no power of independent movement. In order to understand the following descriptions, the terms used will be briefly described.
A hypothetical pupa is shown in Fig. 2, A and B to which reference will be made under the discussion of the different struc- tures.
THE HEAD
Vertex. The vertex is found on the dorsal surface of the head. In the pupae described here, it is confined to a small, triangular area adjacent to each antenna (Fig. 2, B, v). The. vertex is bounded cephalad by the epicranial suture (Fig. 2, B, es), but only a portion of each of the epicranial arms is visible.
Front. The front (Fig. 2, A, f) is the sclerite to which the antennae are attached. It is separated from the vertex, when this is present, by the epicranial suture. The fronto-clypeal suture is not present, but the front includes most of the ventral surface of the head.
Clypeus. This sclerite (Fig. 2, A, cl) cannot be definitely bounded in specialized pupae. The invaginations for the an- tericr arms of the tentorium (Fig. 2, A, at) which are always dis- tinct, are located along its lateral margin.
Labrum. The labrum (Fig. 2, A, lb) is caudad of the cly- peus and is not separated from the clypeus by a suture. Its other margins are always distinct.
Eve-pieces. These are situated mesad of the antennae and each is composed of two parts, a narrow smooth portion along the mesal margin called the glazed eye-piece (Fig. 2, A, ge) and a broader lateral portion called the sculptured eye-piece (Fig. 2, A, se). These are often hard to distinguish in smooth pupae.
Purse oF Some Matne Species or NotopoNTOIDEA 31
Antennae. These are easily located (Fig. 2, A, a) being attached to the front and curving laterad along the margin of the head, extending on to the ventral surface of the thorax and abdomen along the edge of the mesothoracic wing.
Labial Palpi. Only a very small portion of the labial palpi is visible just caudad of the labrum (Fig. 2, A, Ip).
Masxillae. The maxillae (Fig. 2, A, mx) lie adjacent on the meson and vary greatly in length. They are measured on the meson from the caudal margin of the labrum to their distal end, (Fig. 2, A, a). This length is compared with the distance on the meson from the caudal margin of the labrum to the caudal margin of the wings (Fig. 2, A, ac).
The parts of the head, exclusive of the appendages, are referred to as the face-parts.
THE THORAX.
Prothorax. This segment (Fig. 2, B, p) is normally about one-third the length of the mesothorax.
Prothoracic Legs. These lie adjacent to the maxillae (Fig. 2, A, 11). The legs are folded so that normally only the sur- face of the tibia and tarsus are exposed. In generalized forms, however, a portion of the femur is visible (Fig. 2, A, f1). These legs are about half the length of the wings in the great ma- jority of pupae.
Mesothorax. The mesothorax (Fig. 2, B, ms) is the long- est segment of the body, and is normally from two to three times the average length of the abdominal segments.
Mesothoracic Spiracle. The opening to this spiracle re- ferred to in the text as the mesothoracic spiracle (Fig. 2, B, msp), 1s found at the cephalo-lateral angle of the mesothorax, between that segment and the prothorax. The real spiracle is down below the surface in the conjunctiva between the two seg- ments.
Mesothoracic Legs. These are folded just like the pro- thoracic legs and lie adjacent to them, but their femora are nev- ‘er exposed (Fig. 2, A, 12). The part referred to as mesothor- acic leg is in reality the outer surface of the tibia and tarsus. These legs are from three-fifths to three-fourths the length of the wings in the majority of pupae.
32 Marine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
Mesothoracic Wings. The wings of the mesothorax (Fig. 2, A, wl) almost conceal those of the metathorax and are visible on both dorsal and ventral surfaces. In most pupae they are the only wings visible on the ventral surface.
Metathorax. This segment (Fig. 2, B, mt) is usually about as long as the first abdominal segment.
Metathoracic Legs. These legs (Fig. 2, A, 13) are never visible for their entire length, and are sometimes entirely con- cealed. The tips are often visible on either side of the meson near the caudal margin of the wings.
Metathoracic Wings. These are usually concealed by the mesothoracic wings except for a narrow strip along the dorsal margin (Fig. 2, A, w2). In Platypterygidae they are visible on the ventral surface.
ABDOMEN.
The abdomen consists of ten segments (Fig. 2, B, al to al0). The first three segments are only visible mm dorsal view. The fourth usually shows a slight margin below the wings on the ventral surface and all of the other segments are visible on both surfaces. There is movement possible between the fourth and fifth, fifth and sixth, and sixth and seventh segments, and the fourth, fifth and sixth are said to be movable segments. The pupa is thus capable of expanding and contracting the body and can bend it from side to side. The movements possible between these segments enables the pupa to work its way out of the ground, or out of a cocoon. These movable segments generally fit over one another so that the transverse conjunc- tiva of one covers the cephalic portion of the next segment. This cephalic portion is referred to as the cephalic margin (Fig. 2,B,cm). The transverse conjunctiva differs from the remaind- er of the segment in texture and is usually lighter in color. Its cephalic boundary is indicated in the figures by a dotted line.
Tubercle Scars. The larvae often bear prominent tubercles or projections on the body and the scars (Fig. 2, B, ts) of these are nearly always visible on the body of the pupa.
Anal Opening. This is situated on the meson near the caudal margin of the tenth segment (Fig. 2, A, ao). It is usual- ly slit-like and surrounded by prominent wrinkles or folds,
Pupart oF Some Maine Spectes or NoropoNnToivEA 33
Genital Openings. The sexes may be easily distinguished by the position of the genital opening (Fig. 2, A, go). That of the male is situated on the meson of the ninth segment. That ef the female is situated mostly on the eighth segment or on both eighth and ninth segments. The cephalic margins of seg- ments eight and nine curve strongly cephalad in the female, and this alone is sufficient to indicate the sex. In generalized pupae there are two unpaired genital openings in the female, a condition retained by many of the specialized forms.
Abdominal Spiracles. These (Fig. 2, B, s) are present on the first eight segments but are never visible on the first seg- ment, being entirely covered by the wings. The spiracle on the eighth segment is never functional and shows no distinct opening.
Spiracular Furrows. Vhese are found on the cephalic mar- gin of some or all of the movable segments just cephalad of the spiracles (Fig. 2, B, sf). In many genera they are only present on the fifth segment. In some genera there are a number of low ridges, in others a very distinct pocket-like invagination.
Cremaster. The cremaster (Fig. 2, B, cr) is a prolongation of the tenth segment. It is of various shapes and lengths and often separated from the tenth segment by a depression. Its length is measured on the ventral surface, from its junction with the curve of the tenth segment to the distal end. In Fig. 2, A, ab represents the cremastral length.
CLASSIFICATION.
The superfamily Notodontoidea, as considered in this pa- per, includes the families Geometridae, Notodontidae and Pla- typterygidae. The family Dioptidae also belongs to this super- family but there are no species in the eastern states.
The pupae of this superfamily are not always easy to separ- ate from those most closely related, the Noctuoidea and Bom- bycoidea. As in the case of the larvae and adults, there is no one prominent character by which they may be recognized, and it is only a careful comparison of several characters that en- ables us to recognize the pupae of the Notodontoidea. The labial palpi are seldom exposed, and then only a small triangu- lar or polygonal portion caudad of the labrum, thus differing
34 Maine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
from the great majority of the families Noctuidae, Liparidae, and Lasiocampidae in which they are often visible for one-fifth the length of the wings. There are no prominent setae on the body, which separates them from most of the Arctiidae, Lipari- dae, Lasiocampidae, and some Noctuidae. As a general rule only the prothoracic leg extends cephalad between the sculp- tured eye-piece and the antenna. Nearly all of the Noctuidae which do not show a large portion of the labial palpi and pro- thoracic femora, have both prothoracic and mesothoracic legs extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna.
Briefly summarized the characters of the superfamily Not- odontoidea are as follows: Epicranial suture very seldom vis- ible; antennae separated from the face-parts by a distinct su- ture, always broadest at the proximal end, the greatest width about equal to that of the prothoracic legs, but never much broader; labial palpi seldom visible, and then only a small tri- angular or polygonal portion caudad of the labrum; prothoracic femora only exposed in the generalized families of Geometridae ; mesothoracic leg very seldom extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna; body surface never dense- ly covered with setae or having prominent setae arranged in rings or around prominent oval areas; abdominal segments usually punctate; cremaster usually present, and setae at the distal end always hooked.
The dorsal surface of the abdomen frequently shows a deep furrow between the eighth and ninth abdominal segments. The caudal margin of this furrow is usually serrate or crenulate. There are also spiracular furrows found in many species. These ~ vary in number and form, and are mostly found in the Geomet- ridae. The families of Notodontoidea may be separated as follows :
a. Metathoracic wings never visible on the ventral surface of the body.
b. Maxillae usually more than three-fifths the length of the wings, if not, then the caudal end of the body with hooked setae, or the spiracles of the third abdominal segment concealed by the wings and those of the sixth segment farther ventrad than those of the other seg- ments; prothoracic femora sometimes exposed; a deep
Pupar oF Some Maine Species or NovrodoNTOoIDEA 35
furrow usually present on the dorsum of the abdomen between the ninth and tenth segments; caudal margin of mesonotum never with a row of deep pits with smooth tubercle-like areas between. Geometridae.
bb. Maxillae seldom exceeding three-fifths the length of the wings, 1f so, then the caudal margin of the meso- thorax with a row of deep pits with smooth, elevated quadrangular, tubercle-like areas between them, or with the entire body surface coarsely punctate; ab- dominal spiracles of the third segment never concealed by the wings, and those of the sixth never farther ventrad than the remainder; prothoracic femora never exposed ; a furrow never present on the dorsum of the abdomen between the ninth and tenth segments except in Datana where the cremaster is of the type shown in
ees) tom bd. Notodontidae
aa. Metathoracic wings meeting on the meson caudad of the mesothoracic legs, and visible along the caudal margin of the mesothoracic wings. Platypterygidae.
Family GEOMETRIDAE.
The pupae of this family are, with a few exceptions, less than an inch in length. The majority of species are about half an inch long. They are either found suspended from leaves with the cremaster fastened in a mat of silk, much as the chry- salids of butterflies, or they may be found in thin cocoons at- tached to a leaf, or ina cell in the ground. The legs are longer than is usual in lepidopterous pupae, the prothoracic legs usu- ally three-fourths the length of the wings; the mesothoracic legs normally reaching the caudal margin of the wings, or only separated by a very short distance. This is the best single character to separate the pupae of Geometridae from those of the other families. The epicranial suture is present in a very few genera. The labial palpi are sometimes exposed as small triangular or polygonal areas caudad of the labrum. The pro- thoracic leg and occasionally the mesothoracic also, extends cephalad between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna. The femur of the prothoracic leg is sometimes exposed, often only a very narrow portion, which might easily be overlooked. The
>=
36 Marne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StTaTIon. 1917.
maxillae are always long, nearly always extending to the caudal margin of the wings. The antennae vary little throughout the family. They are usually about as wide as the prothoracic legs, measuring the proximal part of both, and are gradually narrowed to the distal end, which usually extends to the caudal margin of the wings. The metathoracic wings usually extend along the margin of the mesothoracic wings on the dorsal surface, but are not visible in ventral view. The mesothorax is very short in some genera and the entire thorax sometimes very short in relation to the remainder of the body. The mesothoracic spir- acles often have a decided projection adjacent to their caudal margin. This may be a sharp ridge, or it may be a prominent tubercle which is often flattened and bears numerous short setae. The abdominal spiracles are sometimes produced and very often the spiracles on the sixth segment are considerably ventrad of the others. Spiracular furrows are frequently present, varying greatly in size and number. The dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments is present in many genera. It often bends caudad near the lateral margin of the body and this lateral extension may reach to the base of the cremaster. A cremaster of some type is always present. In the pupae ex- amined during this investigation only two types were found, the triangular type with hooked setae, and the bifurcate type, with or without hooked setae.
The coloring of the pupa varies considerably in this family. While the majority are chestnut or darker brown, in common with most lepidopterous pupae, there are some which are nearly white, others yellowish, and various shades of yellowish and reddish brown. Some are conspicuously marked with black or dark brown and one of the pupae described has a beautiful pearly luster. The genera described here may be separated as follows :
a. Cremaster with prominent hooked setae at the distal end, but never bifurcate.
b. Cephalic end of body very blunt and each cephalo-lateral angle prominently produced; a large portion of the pro- thoracic femur exposed. Cosymbia.
bb. Cephalic end of body rounded; the prothoracic femur
never visible, or only a very narrow portion of it ex- posed.
} PuparE oF SoME Marne Spectres oF NotopONTOIDEA 37
c. Dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; antennae usually reach- ing the cephalic margin of the fifth abdominal seg- ment. Aplodes.
cc. Dorsal furrow always present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; antennae seldom extend- ing beyond the caudal margin of the wings.
d. Caudal margin of the dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments with very small, inconspicuous projections; the two lateral setae adjacent to the mesal setae or spines on the cre- master larger than the others. Ania.
dd. Caudal margin of the dorsal furrow between the
ninth and tenth abdominal segments with promi- nent projections ; lateral setae of the cremaster all
of the same size. e. Abdomen never densely punctate, either smooth or with shallow impressed lines; color never
brown. f. Body white, conspicuously marked with black, never iridescent. Cingilia. ff. Body pale yellow or green, always iridescent.
Sicya. ee. Abdomen densely punctate; color always brown. f. A small portion of the prothoracic femur ex- posed ; head never showing three small tuber- cles at the cephalic end. Sabulodes. ff. Prothoracic femur never exposed; head al- ways showing three small tubercles at the cephalic end. Abbotana. aa. remaster always bifurcate at the distal end, often with hooked setae, but these weak and easily broken. b. Prothoracic femur exposed.
ce. Dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, nor a prominent dorsal furrow on the fifth abdominal segment.
d. Cephalic margin of fifth abdominal segment with a furrow over each spiracle; mesothoracic spiracle never with a prominent ridge adjacent to its caudal margin. Cleora.
38 Maine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
dd. Cephalic margin of fifth abdominal segment with four or five shallow furrows over each spiracie: mesothoracic spiracle always with a prominent elevation adjacent to its caudal margin. Duasticits.
cc. Dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, and a very prominent one on the dorsum of the fifth abdominal segment. Aydria.
bb. Prothoracic femur never exposed.
c. Dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; a prominent tubercle nev- er present adjacent to each mesothoracic spiracle.
Paleacriia.
cc. Dorsal furrow always present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; a prominent tubercle ad- jacent to each mesothoracic spiracle. FErannis.
Genus COSYMBIA Hubner.
Body much wider at the cephalic end and truncate, the cephalo-lateral angles distinctly produced; face-parts consider- ably elevated, a transverse ridge extending across the front on a line with the cephalic angle of the eye-pieces ; labrum quadrate in outline; labial palpi not visible; maxillae reaching nearly to the caudal margin of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles not quite reaching the eye-pieces; prothoracic legs almost three- fourths the length of the wings, their femora exposed; the legs reaching cephalad between the sculptured eye-pieces and the antennae; mesothoracic legs reaching the caudal margin of the wings, always longer than the maxillae; tips of the metathoracic legs showing caudad of the maxillae; prothorax on the blunt cephalic end of the body, scarcely visible in ventral view, its mesal length one-third that of the mesothorax; mesothoracic spiracle with a large rounded tubercle adjacent to its caudal margin which form‘the produced cephalo-lateral angles of the body as seen in either dorsal or ventral view ; mesothorax with a distinct lateral ridge which extends from the base of the spir- acular tubercle caudad to near the anal anele of the wing; mesal length of metathorax one-fourth that of the mesothorax, the caudal margin curved slightly at the meson; abdominal seg- ments smooth, never punctate; abdominal spiracles small, el-
PupaeE oF SoME MAINE Spectres oF NoroDONTOIDEA 39
liptical, those of the second segment covered by the wings; no spiracular furrows present; no dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments but a very distinct con- striction or furrow at the base of the cremaster; cremaster tri- angular, longer than broad, the distal end with six strong hooked setae and two finer hooked setae just cephalad of these.
COSYMBIA LUMENARIA Hubner. HissZ.@.
Color usually bright green with three interrupted, longi- tudinal white stripes on the dorsum, one of these on the meson and one on either side, a broader, less interrupted white stripe through the spiracles, the body more or less mottled between the stripes with either small black or white blotches; lateral ridge usually with a narrow white stripe on the dorsal side and a broader black stripe on the ventral; body often entirely white with the black stripe near the lateral ridge; head, thorax, and appendages smooth, or with very fine transverse striations, an- tennae at proximal end equal to greatest width of the prothor- acic legs, but narrowing rapidly so that they are only one-third as wide at the distal end; abdomen smooth, the segments taper- ing gradually to the caudal end of the body.
Length 10 to 11 mm.; greatest width 2.5 to 3 mm.
The larvae were very abundant on sweet fern and were often found feeding along the edge of the leaf. Some of the larvae were about an inch long, pale green, with white dorsal stripes much as described for the pupae, with fine powdery white dots be- tween, others were brown with indistinct white stripes and dark- er brown oblique lines or blotches, and seemed to be entirely dif- ferent, while the pupae and the adults would be exactly alike, or at least appeared to be. Larvae were abundant all through July, and many pupae were collected the latter part of the month and in August. The larvae spin a little knot of silk and fasten themselves to it and then transform to pupae. They are sus- pended like many butterflies with the hooks of the cremaster fastened into the web of silk and a fine white silken thread around the middle of the body. There is never any trace of a cocoon. The moths emerged in August and many were seen flying about, but the egg-laying habits were not observed.
aoe eras
I I
40 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
Genus APLODES Guenée.
Body of usual shape, blunt at the cephalic end, entire body surface roughened with deep, indeterminate, impressed lines; a small portion of the labial palpi exposed caudad of the labrum ; antennae extending beyond the caudal margin of the wings, reaching the caudal margin of the transverse conjunctiva when the body is expanded, each distal end curved slightly towards the meson; maxillae never quite reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the tips of the metathoracic legs exposed just caudad of them and between the distal ends of the antennae; proximo- lateral angles of the maxillae not extending to the eye-pieces ; prothoracic leg extending cephalad between the sculptured eye- piece and the antenna, about three-fourths the length of the wings, the femur never exposed; mesothoracic legs reaching the caudal margin of the wings and slightly longer than the maxil- lae; mesal length of prothorax two-thirds that of the mesotho- trax; opening of the mesothoracic spiracle on a slightly elevated tubercle; mesal length of the metathorax one-fourth that of the mesothorax; metathoracic wings showing a large triangular piece adjacent to the second and third abdominal segments and almost forming a right angle opposite the third abdominal seg- ment; abdominal-spiracles almost circular in outline; a dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; sutures between all of the abdominal segments very distinct; cremaster broadly triangular, continuing the outline of the body except for a slight constriction at its proximal end, armed with eight hooked setae, of which the two mesal ones are slightly longer.
APLODES MIMOSARIA Guenée
Fig. 3, E.
Body variously colored, usually grayish green, sometimes yellowish brown, often tinged with reddish or orange~shades, always with a darker dorso-mesal stripe, and dotted with black or dark brown, the bases of the setae conspicuously dark brown or black; cephalic end of body showing a small tubercle on the meson just caudad of the proximal ends of the antennae; proxi- mal ends of the antennae slightly elevated and somewhat tuber-
Pupar o-r Some Marine Seectes or NotTopoNTOIDEA 41
culate, especially along the middle line; wings slightly elevated along the dorso-lateral margin; abdominal spiracles almost cir- cular in outline, usually slightly elevated, the spiracle of the sixth abdominal segment considerably ventrad of the others; abdominal segments roughened with indetermimate trans- verse impressions and sparsely punctate; cremaster less than 1 mm. in length, the two caudal setae of each side curved cepha- lad, the remainder curved caudad. g
Average length 12 mm.; greatest width 3 mm.
The larvae of this species were very abundant on sweet fern. They differ from the majority of geometrid larvae in having the lateral margins of most of the abdominal segments produced into triangular projections one on each side of a seg- ment, which makes the lateral margin of the body very strongly toothed. These projections often curve slightly dorsad. The larvae were about an inch long and variously colored. Some were all green, others were tinted with yellowish and reddish colors like autumn leaves, while others were pale yellow tinged with red. The pupae were less variable in color, and no differ- ence could be detected in the adults. The larvae were very diffi- cult to locate as they fed along the edge of the sweet fern leaves, and the notches on their body corresponded in a general way to the notches in the leaves. Many of them were taken by sweeping. The first larvae were collected July 23 and they were abundant till the middle of August. By the third week in Aug- ust practically all had pupated. The larvae spin a few threads
’ of silk between two leaves and the pupa is held in place in
the entanglement of the silk by the hooks on the cremaster.
Genus ANIA Stephens.
Body widest near the cephalic end; surface roughened with deep indeterminate impressed lines on head, thorax and appendages, densely punctate on the abdomen, never presenting a polished appearance; face-parts elevated, the head with a rounded, transverse ridge just caudad of the proximal ends of the antennae; a small portion of the labial palpi exposed caudad of the labrum; maxillae about seven-eighths the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles never reaching to the eye- pieces; prothoracic legs about three-fourths the length of the wings, their femora never exposed ; mesothoracic legs longer than
42 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 1917.
the maxillae and meeting on the meson caudad of them, often separating to show a small portion of the tips of the metathor- acic legs; both prothoracic and mesothoracie legs extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-pieces and the antennae; antennae reaching to the caudal margin of the wings and meet- ing on the meson; prothorax about half the length of the mes- othorax ; mesothoracic spiracles with the caudal margin elevated and somewhat flaring ; abdominal segments 1 to 8 densely punc- tate ; abdominal spiracles elliptical, slightly produced ; spiracular furrows present on segments 5 to 7, the surface of the furrows punctate like the remainder of the segment; furrow present on the dorsum between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, the edges very finely serrate; cremaster triangular in outline, ru- gose, with two large long hooked spines at the distal end, at the base of these two stout hooked setae, and cephalad of these two hooked setae near each lateral margin, forming a transverse row. This genus consists of a single species in North America.
ANIA LIMBATA Haworth. The Horned Span-worm. Fig. 2, E and H.
General color light brown, with darker brown markings, most of these small, irregular spots; antennae with dark brown inverted V-shaped markings; ventral surface of abdomen show- ing three broad stripes, the mesal one more distinct than those near the lateral margin; dorsal surface of abdomen with broad, indistinct, oblique bands of a lighter color; bases of the setae dark brown, and usually the distal portion of the cremaster ; antennae slightly elevated, with a row of minute tubercles along the middle line; abdominal segments 1 to 8 finely, densely punc- tate, the ninth and tenth segments smooth; segments two and three with a more or less distinct tubercle on each side the meson indicating the scars of the larval filaments; segments five, six and seven with a distinct elevation along the cephalic margin; dorsal furrow between segments nine and ten with a lateral extension, the caudal margin (Fig. 2, H) notched on the meson and slightly serrate; cremaster 1 mm. long, slightly ru- gose, and showing a slight constriction on each lateral margin at the base.
Pupar or Some Marine Species or NotopoNtTOoIDEA 43
Average length 9 mm.; greatest breadth 3 mm.
The larvae of this species are easily recognized by the group of four filaments that stand up on the back with their ends slightly curled. The first pair is attached to the second abdominal segment. They feed on various plants and were col- lected at Orono on sweet fern during the first week in August. The larvae pupated the fifth of August between the leaves of sweet fern, but did not form a cocoon.
Genus CINGILIA Walker.
Body slender, but of usual type; labrum quadrangular; a small polygonal portion of labial palpi exposed caudad of the labrum; antennae extending to the caudal margin of the wings, their greatest width greater than that of the prothoracic legs, their distal ends usually meeting on the meson; maxillae almost reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles not extending laterad to the eye-pieces; prothoracic legs three-fourths the length of the wings, their femora never ex- posed; mesothoracic legs seven-eighths the length of the wings; only the prothoracic leg extending cephalad between the sculp- tured eye-piece and the antenna; mesal length of prothorax two- niths that of the mesothorax; metathorax about half the length of the prothorax and slightly shorter than the first abdominal segment; abdominal segments with shallow, transverse im- pressed lines; dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth ab- dominal segments present, the caudal margin crenulate; cre- master without a furrow at the base, ending in two long hooked spines with one short hooked seta on each side, a transverse row of four similar setae just cephalad of these.
This genus includes a single species in America.
CINGILIA CATENARIA Drury.
The Chain-dotted Geometer. Fig. 4, C and F.
Color white with conspicuous black blotches, the largest of these on the dorsum of the first five abdominal segments, the wing veins and some of the sutures lined with black; entire surface of body with shallow transverse impressed lines; an- tennae elevated, highest along the middle line, transversely lined with black; mesothoracic spiracles split-like; abdominal spira-
44 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917. cles without any outer margin, the openings elliptical; cre- master (Fig. 4, F) with two large spines and six smaller ones.
Length 15 to 18 mm.; greatest width 3.5 to 4 mm.
The larvae of this species are pale yellow with some narrow dark brown or black stripes and marked with cénspicuous black spots near the spiracles and on the lower part of the body. They feed on numerous plants, and specimens were collected from larch and sweet fern August 8. They pupated shortly after, spinning a very loose open cocoon through which the pupa could be easily seen. The cocoon was attached either to a leaf or a stem. The adults are white, and also conspicuously marked with black. They emerge in September.
Genus SICYA Guenée.
Body of usual type; surface smooth with a few punctures on the abdomen; labial palpi represented by a small triangular area caudad of the labrum; maxillae seven-eighths the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles scarcely reaching to the eye-pieces ; antennae elevated, extending to the caudal margin of the wings, their greatest width slightly greater than that of the prothoracic legs, and meeting or approaching each other on the meson; prothoracic legs about two-thirds the length of the wings, extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-pieces and the antennae; mesothoracic legs nearly as long as the wings, meeting on the meson just caudad of the maxillae; mesal length of prothorax about half that of the mesothorax, while the meta- thorax is one-fifth of this length; mesothoracic spiracle slit- like, the cephalic margin slightly elevated; spiracular furrows not present; dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, the caudal margin showing two large projections ; cremaster triangular, longer than the tenth segment, two large hooked spines or setae at the end, with three smaller, but heavy hooked setae on each side just cephalad of the others.
SICYA MACULARIA Haworth. Fig. 2, D and G.
Color pale yellow and green with silvery and pale green iridescence; surface smooth and polished, the setae rather con-
Pupare oF Some MAINE SpEcIES oF NoTroDONTOIDEA 45
spicuous under the microscope and arising from small brown tubercles; median line of thorax brown, also a line indicating the suture at the base of each antenna, the spiracles, the glazed eye-piece, the margin of the prothorax, and the cremastral hooks ; abdominal segments 1 to 7 with a few, very fine punctures which are scarcely apparent, segments 3 and 4 have a row of larger punctures along the cephalic margin of the segment, while segments 5 to 7 have a few larger ones scattered over the surface of the cephalic margin; abdominal spiracles almost circular, produced, the openings ovate in outline; cremaster (Fig. 2. G) with a distinct furrow at base, the dorsal surface depressed be- low the level of the tenth segment, and rugose with fine longi- tudinal striations; cremaster 1 mm. in length, the lateral hooks flattened and broader at the end.
Length 12 mm.; greatest width 4 mm.
The larva of this species was ready to pupate when collect- ed, and therefore no description was obtained. It was collected July 2 on wild white spiraea. The larva first spun a very open web of silk which bent over the tip of the leaf and fastened it down. This web was drawn around the larva to form a sort of cocoon. The pupa at first was pale green with a brown med- ian line on the thorax and brown around the spiracles. The dorsum of the body was lighter in color than the remainder, and had the appearance of being powdered. The body showed a beautiful iridescence even then, but in three days more it was fully hardened, a sort of yellowish-green in color and iridescent over the entire surface. The adult emerged July 16.
Genus SABULODES Guenée.
Body of usual type; surface always dull in appearance, con- siderably roughened with deep indeterminate transverse, im- pressed lines on head, thorax, and appendages, the abdomen densely punctate; labial palpi represented by a small polygonal area caudad of the labrum; proximo-lateral angles of maxillae never reaching the eye-pieces ; maxillae, antennae and mesothor- acic legs normally reaching the caudal margin of the wings, sometimes falling a little short of it; prothoracic leg about two- thirds the length of the wings, a very narrow portion of the femur exposed ; the prothoracic legs extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-pieces and the antennae; the mesothoracic
46 Marine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917,
leg scarcely reaching the level of the glazed eye-piece in some species and extending farther cephalad in others; mesal length of prothorax one-half that of the mesothorax; metathorax one- fifth the length of the mesothorax and shorter than the first ab- dominal segment; mesothoracic spiracle slit-like; abdominal segments 1 to 8 punctate; furrow present on the dorsum between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, the caudal margin coarsely toothed, the lateral extensions reaching almost to the base of the cremaster; cremaster longer than the tenth segment, bearing two stout curved spines at the distal end, with slender hooked setae along each lateral margin, the ventral surface with two deep parallel furrows, one near each lateral margin. The species of Sabulodes may be separated as follows: a. Face-parts with a prominent transverse ridge between the eye-pieces; body setae arising from small papillae; caudal margin of furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments with small projections or teeth. transversata. aa. Face-parts never with a prominent transverse ridge be- tween the eye-pieces; body setae arising from small de- pressions ; caudal margin of the furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments with large projections. lorata.
SABULODES LORATA Grote.
Fig. 4, B and E.
Color yellowish brown, the spiracles, tenth segment, and cremaster always darker brown, an irregular dark spot on each side the dorso-meson of the first eight abdominal segments and one on the mesothorax at about the middle of its length, also fine irregular blotches on other parts of the body which are exceedingly variable; antennae more elevated than the other appendages, highest along the middle line, the surface covered with small tubercles ; abdominal segments 1 to 8 densely punctate with medium punctures, the ninth and tenth segments smooth; body setae arising from small pits; abdominal spiracles with the openings elliptical; spiracular furrows never present; dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth segments edged with black or very dark brown, with four prominent teeth on each side
3
Pupare oF SomME Maine Species oF NoroponToIpEA 47
the meson; cremaster (Fig. 4, E) 1.5 mm. in length, the dorsal surface with deep longitudinal furrows and a transverse furrow at the base, a hooked seta laterad at the base of each large curved spine and a transverse row of four hooked setae of the same size at about one-third the length of the cremaster from the distal end.
Average length 18 mm.; greatest width 4.5 mm.
The larvae of this species are slim brown loopers with three rather prominent tubercles and a ridge on the dorsum of the body. They were only taken from sweet fern. When full grown they attach themselves to the leaves with a few threads of silk and usually pull another leaf over it, so that the pupa is entirely concealed.
SABULODES TRANSVERSATA Drury. The Large Maple Span-worm. Fig. 4, K.
Color usually yellowish brown, the head, thorax, and ap- pendages of many individuals a much darker brown; the cre- master usually dark brown; surface of body roughened with impressed lines and striations and somewhat tuberculate, there being small distinct, whitish tubercles visible on the appendages and on the eye-pieces ; face-parts with a distinct, high, rounded transverse ridge extending from just cephalad of the middle of each glazed eye-piece; antennae tuberculate, the proximal fifth elevated along the middle line and forming a ridge; setae of thorax and abdomen arising from small, dark brown. papillae; abdominal segments with the punctures mostly obscured by the ridges, except on the seventh and eighth segments, the ninth and tenth segments smooth; abdominal spiracles usually edged with darker brown, those of the second, third and fourth seg- ments touching the wings, the lips of the openings slightly pro- duced and somewhat crescent-shaped; spiracular furrows indi- cated on the fifth segment; dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments distinct, the caudal margin edged with black and finely toothed; cremaster with four longitudinal ridges and a transverse furrow at base, four of the hooked setae inserted on the dorsal surface, and two on the lateral margin.
a ry rt
es
en
48 MaIne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
Average length 17 mm.; greatest width 5 mm.
The larvae of this species were collected from maple, but they are found on other kinds of trees. They are two inches or more in length, dark grayish brown and the mesothorax somewhat swollen at the sides. They pupate by attaching themselves to the leaves with a few threads of silk and then folding the leaf over, or attaching another leaf to it with the silk. These threads of silk do not form a cocoon. The pupa fastens itself to the silk by means of the cremastral hooks. The larvae are found in July and pupate early in August.
Genus ABBOTANA Hulst:
Body of usual type; surface always dull in appearance with deep impressed lines on the head, thorax, and appendages, and densely punctate on the abdomen; cephalic end of body showing three small tubercles between the antennae; labial palpi repre- sented by a small polygonal area caudad of the labrum, proximo- lateral angles of the maxillae never reaching the eye-pieces ; maxillae and antennae reaching the caudal margin of the wings; prothoracic legs two-thirds the length of the wings, the femora never exposed ; mesothoracic legs a little shorter than the max- _ illae and never reaching the caudal margin of the wings; both prothoracic and mesothoracic legs extending cephalad between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna; mesal length of pro- thorax one-half that of the mesothorax; that of the metathorax shorter than the first abdominal segment; mesothoracic spiracles slit-like, showing a narrow very slightly elevated ridge along the caudal margin; abdominal segments 1 to 8 punctate, the tenth segment irregularly rugose; furrow on the dorsum be- tween the ninth and tenth segments distinct, the caudal margin coarsely toothed, the lateral extensions never reaching to the base of the cremaster ; cremaster longer than the tenth segment, bear- ing two very stout spines at the distal end and slender hooked setae along each lateral margin, the ventral surface with a deep furrow on each side.
This genus includes a single species Abbotana clemataria found throughout the eastern part of the United States.
ABBOTANA CLEMATARIA Smith and Abbot.
Color chestnut brown, variously mottled with very dark brown or black, the darker color always conspicuous around the
Pupart oF SoME MAINE Species or NoroDONTOIDEA 49
spiracles and on the cremaster; head, as seen in ventral view, with three small tubercles along the cephalic margin, one on the meson, and one on each side of it; face-parts and appendages not elevated, except the cephalic fourth of each antenna which shows a low ridge along the median line, the tubercles on the ridge causing the lateral margins of the head to appear serrate ; antennae covered with minute tubercles ; prothorax with a slight- ly elevated median ridge which is almost always lighter in color than the remainder of the segment; middle line of mesothorax usually marked by a pale yellowish line; abdominal segments 1 to 8 densely punctate, the ninth practically smooth, the tenth segment and cremaster irregularly rugose; spiracles ovate in outline, the openings elliptical; spiracular furrows of the fifth abdominal segment indistinct, very slightly elevated and in- terrupted by punctures; cremaster triangular, with two heavy curved spines at the distal end, each about 6 mm. long, and three hooked setae along each lateral margin. ae
Length 18 to 23 mm.; greatest width 7 mm.
The larvae of this species were the largest of any geometrid collected in Maine being about three inches long. They are dark brown to nearly black in color, with a prominent ridge on the mesothorax and one near the caudal end of the body. These ridges have a small orange tubercle at each side. Near the mid- dle of the body is a very prominent.brown tubercle on each side the meson, resembling the winter buds of the maple tree, so that when this larva mimics a twig, these tubercles pass for buds. They were collected from apple and maple, but are said to feed on a variety of trees. When ready to pupate, the larvae spin a few threads of silk and draw two leaves together and the pupa fastens the hooks on the cremaster into this silk. The larvae were most numerous the latter part of July, and the first one pupated August 10. The adults emerge in the spring. The pupae of this species resemble those of the genus Sabulodes very strongly, so no figure is shown. They differ, however, in the tubercles on the head and antennae, and in the irregularly rugose cremaster and tenth abdominal segment, and in never having any portion of the prothoracic femur exposed. The pu- pae of Abbotana never become hard and firm as most pupae do, but are always soft and yielding to the touch. They are normal- ly much larger than those of Sabiulodes.
50 MatneE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
Genus CLEORA Curtis.
Body of usual type; face-parts not much elevated; antennae reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the distal end of each curved slightly mesad; a small portion of the labial palpi ex- posed caudad of the labrum; maxillae reaching almost to the caudal margin of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles not extending quite to the eye-pieces; prothoracic legs three-fourths the length of the wings, their femora exposed; mesothoracic legs equal in length to the maxillae; mesal length of prothorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax, mesothoracic spiracle with an ovate tubercle adjacent to its caudal margin, the surface covered with fine setae; mesal length of metathorax one-fourth that of the mesothorax; first eight abdominal segments coarsely punc- tate; the spiracular furrow present cephalad of each spiracle on the fifth abdominal segment, the surface of the furrow very rugose; dorsal furrow never present between segments nine and ten; abdominal spiracles almost circular in outline; cre- master triangular at base, the distal half spine-like, and slightly bifurcate at tip.
This genus includes a number of species but only two are commonly found in Eastern North America. One of these Cleora pampinaria is described here.
CLEORA PAMPINARIA Guenée.
Fig. 2, F and I.
Color chestnut brown, usually without markings, some- times with a few small dark spots on the appendages ; face-parts and appendages almost smooth and appearing polished; pro- thoracic leg slightly elevated near the large exposed part of the femur; thorax smooth, or with very fine transverse impressions ; abdomen densely punctate with medium punctures on the first eight segments; spiracles almost circular, the openings ellipti- cal, that of the sixth slightly ventrad of the others; spiracular furrow (Fig. 2, 1) with the surface deeply rugose, the outer edge heavily chitinized, almost black and apparently serrate; surface slightly concave between the furrow and spiracle, crossed by faint elevated lines; cremaster about 1 mm. long, the dorsal surface convex and rugose, the distal end spine-like and bifur- cate.
Pupart oF SomME MAINE Species of NoToDONTOIDEA 51
Average length 12.5 mm.; greatest width 4 mm.
It could not be determined from the specimens whether or not there are hooked setae on the cremaster as they stayed in the soil until the moths emerged, and if present were broken off. The larvae of this species were collected from common yellow dock the latter part of June and pupated before a description was obtained. The moths emerged during September in the laboratory.
Genus DIASTICTIS Hiitbner.
Body of usual shape, widest in the region of the third and fourth abdominal segments; head, thorax and appendages com- paratively smooth, the abdomen rather coarsely punctate ; fronto- clypeal suture indicated at the base of the antennae; labrum rounded on the caudal margin; a small portion of labial palpi exposed caudad of the labrum; maxillae never quite reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles not extending to the eye-pieces ; antennae broader than the prothor- acic legs, narrowed slightly at the distal end and sometimes touching on the meson; prothoracic legs three-fourths the length of the wings, their femora exposed; mesothoracic legs as long as the maxillae; tips of the metathoracic legs usually exposed caudad of the maxillae; mesal length of prothorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax; mesothoracic spiracle with a prominent ridge adjacent to its caudal margin, the edge curved slightly caudad and covered with white setae; metathorax one-half the length of the prothorax; abdominal segments 1 to 8 thickly punctate, the ninth and tenth sparsely punctate or smooth; ab- dominal spiracles elliptical; fifth abdominal segment with five or six shallow furrows over each spiracle, the margin of the seg- ment cephalad of the spiracle with coarser punctures than the remainder of the segment; dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; cremaster rugose at base, bifurcate at the distal end.
Only two species of this genus were collected in Maine, but other species are known to occur in the State. These two species are very closely related and may be separated as follows:
a. Elevation along caudal margin of mesothoracic spiracle strongly elevated and visible in ventral view; spiracular
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52 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
furrows indistinct and often resembling rows of con- fluent punctures. ribearia.
aa. [Elevation along caudal margin of mesothoracie spiracle strongly elevated and not visible in ventral view; spir- acular furrows narrow, but distinct, the edges sharp. anataria.
DIASTICIIS RIBEARIA Pitch: The Gooseberry Span-worm. Fig. 3, F, and Fig. 4, I and J.
Color dark reddish brown; head, thorax and appendages usually smooth and polished, occasionally with indeterminate transverse striations, especially on the thorax; antennae with
transverse impressions indicating the segmentation, usually -as
long as the wings but seldom meeting on the meson; a distinct, transverse furrow present between the invaginations for the anterior arms of the tentorium ; eye-pieces almost equal in width; elevation caudad of the mesothoracic spiracle prominent, and visible in ventral view, the surface thickly covered with fine whitish setae; spiracular furrows of the fifth abdominal segment indistinct and resembling confluent punctures; cremaster 1 mm. in length, rugose and bifurcate for about one-fourth its length.
Length 10 to 12 mm.; greatest width 3.5 mm.
The larvae feed on leaves of gooseberry, currant and blue- berry. They are more often found on the gooseberry and often become a serious pest. The larvae are whitish, irregularly spotted with black and have yellow stripes on the dorsal and lateral aspects. They are full-grown about the last of June and enter the ground to pupate, but do not spin a cocoon. The moths emerge from the pupae in two or three weeks and lay their eggs which hatch the following spring.
DIASTICTIS ANATARIA Swett.
Fig. 4. G and H.
Color dark reddish brown, head, thorax and appendages with fine indeterminate transverse striations, but giving a smooth and polished appearance; antennae as long as the wings and meeting on the meson at their caudal margin; a transverse fur- row indicated between the invaginations for the anterior arms
Pupare oF Some MatINe Species or NOTODONTOIDEA 53
of the tentorium, but not deep nor very distinct; eye-pieces difficult to distinguish; elevation caudad of the mesothoracic spiracle not prominent and not visible in ventral view, its sur- face sparsely covered with whitish setae and not very noticeable, a small furrow just caudad of the elevation; spiracular furrows of the fifth abdominal segment distinct, narrow, five or six in number and punctate at the bottom of the furrows; cremaster 1.3 mm. in length, with a distinct transverse furrow at base, rugose on the proximal half, the furrows deeper on the ventral surface, and bifurcate for one-fifth its length.
Length 10 to 12 mm.; greatest width 3.5 mm.
The larvae of this species were collected on gray birch and yellow birch. They were about an inch long, colored dull red, marked with black in an irregular marbled pattern with a whitish spot in front of each spiracle. They were collected the last week of June and were ready to pupate in about two weeks. In the laboratory they pupated on top of the soil without form- ing a cocoon, but would probably burrow in the soil out of doors. The adults emerged July 25.
Genus HYDRIA Hibner.
Head short, slightly narrower than the thorax; body sur- face slightly roughened with impressed lines and punctures, but presenting a polished appearance; epicranial suture present and distinct; labrum broader than long, rounded at the distal end; a small triangular portion of the labial palpi usually visible caudad of the labrum; maxillae sometimes reaching the caudal margin of the wings, but usually slightly shorter and exposing the tips of the metathoracic legs, the proximo-lateral angles never extending as far as the eye-pieces ; antennae always reach- ing the caudal margin of the wings; prothoracic legs almost three-fourths the length of the wings, their femora always ex- posed; mesothoracic legs usually slightly shorter than the an- tennae ; both prothoracic and mesothoracic legs extending cepha- lad between each sculptured eye-piece and the antenna; mesal length of prothorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax; meta- thorax about half the length of the prothorax and shorter than the first abdominal segment; mesothoracic spiracles slit-like ; abdomen coarsely punctate, except on the ninth and tenth seg-
54 Maine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STaATIon. 1917.
ments; dorsum of fifth abdominal segment with a deep furrow along the cephalic margin, invisible when the body is contracted and the movable segments telescoped; abdominal spiracles slightly produced, the openings elliptical; dorsal furrows present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, its caudal mar- gin finely serrate, the lateral extension reaching caudad almost to the base of the cremaster; cremaster about twice the length of the tenth segment, a slight furrow at base, bifurcate at tip and with hooked setae near the proximal end.
HYDRIA UNDULATA Linnaeus. The Scallop-shell Moth. Fig. 4, A and D.
Color reddish brown; ventral surface of head and append- ages with shallow, impressed lines; labrum slightly elevated ; thoracic segments with irregular, deeply impressed lines; met- athorax and first abdominal segment showing a rather prom nent ridge along the caudal margin; abdomen with the first four segments coarsely punctate except a narrow strip along the caudal margin; dorsum of fifth segment almost smooth caudad of the furrow which is edged with black; sixth, seventh and eighth segments like the first four, the ninth and tenth practi- cally smooth; cremaster rugose at base, narrowing rapidly to a slender spine-like part which is bifurcate at tip, the arms of the bifurcation slender and divergent, lateral margin of cremaster with three slender hooked setae along each lateral margin.
Average length 9 mm.; greatest width 3 mm.
The larvae of the scallop-shell moth feed mostly on cherry. They are dark brown or nearly black on the back with some fine yellow lines, and yellowish white underneath. They make a sort of nest by webbing the leaves together at the end of a branch and adding more leaves as they need food. The larvae were collected August 26 and soon after entered the soil to pu- pate. They form an earthen cell in which the pupa passes the winter.
Genus PALEACRITA Riley.
Body of usual type, but usually strongly convex on the dorsum of the first three abdominal segments, so that the body
Sect
55
Pupar or Some Martine Species or NoroDONTOIDEA
is very thick in this region; face-parts decidedly elevated at the proximal ends of the antennae, clypeal region, labrum and eye-pieces ; a furrow present indicating the lateral parts of the fronto-clypeal suture; labrum almost semicircular in outline; antennae reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the distal end of each curved slightly mesad; maxillae reaching the cau- dal margin of the wings, their proximo-lateral angles not ex- tending as far as the eye-pieces; labial palpi never exposed; prothoracic leg reaching cephalad between the sculptured eye- piece and antenna, and at least seven-eighths the length of the wings, their femora never exposed ; mesothoracic legs sometimes reaching the caudal margin of the wings, but usually a little shorter; thoracic segments unusually short, the entire thorax less than one-fourth the total length of the body; mesal length of prothorax two-thirds that of the mesothorax, and the meta- thorax one-half of this length; mesothoracic spiracle with its caudal margin abruptly elevated, then a gradual slope towards the base of the wing; abdomen coarsely punctate, at least on eight segments; dorsal furrow never present between the ninth and tenth segments; abdominal spiracles strongly produced, the openings somewhat lenticular; one deep spiracular furrow present over each spiracle on the fifth segment, the outer margin strongly chitinized; cremaster longer than broad, slightly bi- furcate at tip often showing a fine seta on each lateral margin near the proximal end.
This genus has only one common species, Paleacrita vernata which is common in the eastern part of the United States and Canada.
PALEACRITA VERNATA Peck. The Spring Canker-worm. Fig. 3, C and D.
Color yellowish or reddish brown; head, thorax, and ap- pendages slightly roughened with indeterminate transverse stria- tions; a portion of the front more strongly elevated than the remainder of the face-parts; antennae showing transverse im- pressions ; abdomen coarsely punctate on segments | to 8, rarely on the remaining segments; abdomen considerably arched in the region of the first three segments giving the pupa a hump- backed appearance; spiracular furrows with their transverse
56 Marine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 1917.
length twice that of the spiracles; spiracles usually black or dark brown and produced for a distance equal to their length; a prominent projection usually present on each side of the anal opening, probably the scars of the anal prolegs; cremaster less than 1 mm. in length, usually triangular at base narrowing ra- pidly so that the distal end is cylindrical and spine-like, slightly bifurcate at tip; lateral setae of the cremaster very fine and easily broken and not usually found on specimens.
Average length 8 mm.; greatest width 3.5 mm.; height at third abdominal segment 3 to 3.5 mm.
The larvae of the spring canker-worm are about an inch long and vary considerably in color from light brown to dull black. There is a yellow stripe running through the spiracles and a greenish yellow stripe underneath. They are ready to pupate about the first of June and enter the ground where they make an earthen cell and change to pupae. They live over win- ter in the pupal stage, the moths emerging in early spring. Al- though the female moths of this species are wingless, the pupae have the wings as well developed in the female as in the male.
Genus ERANNIS Hitbner.
Cephalic half of body much thicker than the remainder, the dorsum of the first three segments convex as seen in lateral view ; fronto-clypeal suture distinct for a part of its distance; clypeal and labrai regions distinctly elevated, the labrum almost semi-circular in outline; labial palpi not visible; maxillae never quite reaching the caudal margin of the wings, the proximo- lateral angles never reaching the eye-pieces ; antennae consider- ably broader than the prothoracic legs and only slightly nar- rowed at the distal end, always reaching the caudal margin of the wings and there curving mesad and normally touching; pro- thoracic legs at least seven-eighths the length of the wings, the femora never exposed, the cephalic end extending between the antenna and the sculptured eye-piece; mesothoracic legs as long as the maxillae and almost reaching the caudal margin of the wings; prothorax one-half the length of the mesothorax, the caudal margin not prominently curved at the meson; mesothor- acic spiracles with a prominent ovate flattened tubercle adjacent to its caudal margin, the surface rugose and apparently cov- ered with very fine, short setae, the tubercle extending at least
oe
Pupart oF Some Matne Species or NoropoNToIDEA 57
one-fourth of the distance between the margin of the antenna and the meson; mesothorax shorter than usual, the metathorax about one-fourth of its mesal length; abdominal segments 1 to 8, sometimes 1 to 9, punctate, the remaining segments smooth; abdominal spiracles almost circular in outline, the openings elliptical, the lips somewhat elevated ; spiracular furrows present on the fifth segment, each with a strongly chitinized edge, the sur- face punctate, the area surrounding the spiracle having few punctures; dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments, the edges not strongly toothed; cremaster broad at base, and rugose, narrowing rapidly to a smooth spine- like distal half which is bifurcate at tip.
ERANNIS TILIARIA Harris. The Lime Span-worm. Fig. 3, A and B.
Color usually bright reddish or yellowish brown, the head, thorax, and appendages often darker than the remaining sur- face ; face parts with fine indeterminate striations, almost smooth, a few wrinkles or impressed lines between the proximal ends of the antennae; thorax with shallow impressed lines; abdom- inal segments 1 to 8 coarsely, thickly punctate; eighth segment somewhat swollen in the region of the spiracles and narrowing rapidly to the caudal margin; caudal margin of the furrow be- tween the ninth and tenth segments finely serrate and somewhat crenulate in outline; cremaster with a transverse furrow at base, the proximal half rugose with a slight lateral projection on each side at the base of the narrow, smooth distal portion, which is bifurcate at tip, each half slender and somewhat seta-like, very easily broken.
Average length 12 to 15 mm.; greatest width 4 to 5 mm.
The larvae of the lime span-worm were collected this season from apple, cherry, Carolina poplar and the linden or lime tree, although most of them came from apple. The caterpillars are about an inch and a half long, and the markings vary con- siderably. They are generally dull dark red on the back, with a broad yellow stripe through the spiracles, and whitish under- neath. They were most abundant the last two weeks of June and pupated the last of June and the first week in July. They burrow into the soil near the base of the tree to pupate and
58 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERTMENT Station. 1917.
make an earthen cell, but no traces of cocoons were found. The adults emerge late in the fall and lay the eggs, which do not hatch till spring.
Family NOTODONTIDAE.
The pupae of this family vary considerably, and there is no one character which will serve to separate them from those of the nearly related families. The prothoracic and mesothor- acic legs are of the normal length for lepidopterous pupae, the prothoracic legs about half that of the wings and the mesothor- acic legs slightly longer. The labial palpi often show a very small portion caudad of the labrum. The maxillae seldom reach the caudal margin of the wings and are usually less than three- fifths their length. The antennae are broadest at their proximal ends, and there the width exceeds that of the prothoracic legs. They seldom reach the caudal margin of the wings, and their tips often le adjacent on the meson caudad of the other appen- dages. The mesothoracic leg never reaches cephalad to the eye-pieces, but the prothoracic leg always does. The latter seldom extends cephalad between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna. The abdomen is usually punctate and only shows a dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth segments in the genus Datana. The mesothoracic spiracles are usually slit-like and seldom, if ever, show an elevated ridge or tubercle adjacent to the caudal margin. The abdominal spiracles are seldom pro- duced and always in a straight line. Spiracular furrows are never present. A few members of this family have no cre- master, but usually a short cremaster is present. The presence of hooked setae on the cremaster is the exception in the Noto- dontidae, as most of them pupate in the ground.
The colors vary but little in this family, nearly all being chestnut-brown, but a few are nearly black. None of the species known have prominent markings on the body. The genera of Notodontidae may be separated as follows:
a. Maxillae one-third or less the length of the wings; both prothoracic and mesothoracic legs meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae; abdomen very finely punctate.
b. Thorax and abdomen thickly covered with very fine short setae; cremaster a stout spine about one millimeter in
bb.
ada.
(Ee
PuparE oF SomME MAINE SPECIES OF NOTODONTOIDEA 59
length with two short recurving hooks at the tip, each
of which bears two or more very fine setae.
Melalopha.
Thorax and abdomen never thickly covered with very
fine, short setae; cremaster never as described above;
sometimes absent.
Abdominal segments 2 to 7 with a slight ridge at both cephalic and caudal margins, the cephalic ridge interrupted by deep pits giving it the appearance of a row of square tubercles; face-parts and ap- pendages not elevated, making a smooth even sur- face; cephalic end of body not elevated between the antennae; cremaster short. Apatelodes.
cc. Abdominal segments 2 to 7 never with ridges; ap- pendages distinctly elevated; cephalic end of body elevated between the antennae; cremaster never present. ; Far pyia.
Maxillae always more than one-third the length of the
wings ; never with both prothoracic and mesothoracic legs meeting on the meson; abdomen usually rather coarsely
punctate. b. Maxillae from one-half to three-fifths the length of the
bb.
wings; mesothoracic legs meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae; appendages roughened with deep inde- terminate striations; abdomen coarsely punctate; a dis- tinct, deep furrow on the dorsum between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments; cremaster short, bifurcate, each half with several short, spiny projections.
Datana.
Maxillae more than three-fifths the length of the wings;
neither prothoracic nor mesothoracic legs meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae; appendages usually with shallow striations; a distinct furrow never present on the dorsum between the ninth and tenth abdominal! segments ; cremaster not as described above.
c. Entire body surface with coarse deep punctures; ce- phalic margin of the movable abdominal segments with large lunate punctures and a ridge with a row of large distinct punctures just caudad of it; cre- master short, rugose, slightly bifurcate; bearing six
60 MatIne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
long hooked setae; mesothorax never with a deeply pitted caudal margin. Symmerista.
ce. Body usually punctate on the abdomen but not on the appendages; movable abdominal segments some- times with a shght ridge along the cephalic mar- gin but never with a row of large punctures just caudad of it; cremaster bifurcate, but’ never with hooked setae; mesothorax with a row of deep pits along the caudal margin, with smooth quadrangu- lar areas between and partly covering them.
d. Wings always touching on the meson; max- illae never as long as the wings; cephalic end of body sometimes with two sharp, heavily chitinized projections.
Schizura. :
dd. Wings adjacent on the meson but not touch- ing; maxillae usually as long as the wings ; cephalic end of body never. with heavily chitinized projections. Heterocampa.
Genus MELALOPHA Htibner.
Body cylindrical, blunt at the cephalic end, the head scarce- ly visible in dorsal view; surface smooth, polished, covered with very fine setae which are only visible by the aid of a lens; epicranial suture present but only a small portion visible, the vertex being represented by a small triangular area adjacent to each antenna; labrum usually broader than long; sculptured eye-piece more than twice the width of the wlaged eye-piece ; antennae broader at the proximal end than the prothoracic legs and tapering gradually to a pointed tip; labial palpi usually en- tirely concealed, but occasional specimens show a small portion just caudad of the labrum; maxillae one-third or less the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles never reaching the eye- pieces; legs of the normal length, both prothoracic and meso- thoracic legs adjacent on the meson caudad of the maxillae, and a very small portion of the metathoracic legs showing between the wings at their caudal margin; thorax relatively short, only about one-fourth the length of the body; mesal length of pro- thorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax; metathorax. shorter than the first abdominal segment; spiracles all slightly elevated,
PupaE oF SoME MAINE SpEciIES oF NovroDONTOIDEA 61
their openings elliptical; abdomen finely punctate; cremaster a straight spine with the distal end widened and bearing two or three recurving hooks on each side, each hook bearing minute setae on its mesal margin which are very easily destroyed.
MELALOPHA INCLUSA Hubner.
Big. 5; Cand I
Color usually yellowish brown, with darker brown on the thorax, the cephalic margin of the abdominal spiracles, the ce- phalic margin of the movable abdominal segments and the cre- master; antennae smooth, ending opposite the prothoracic legs; maxillae one-third the length of the wings or slightly less; first three segments of the abdomen usually more elevated than the thorax and forming a distinct curve; abdominal segments finely punctate, the cephalic margin of each movable segment much more densely punctate, the ninth and tenth segments almost smooth; first abdominal segment with the scar of the larval tubercles apparent, in some specimens as a dark spot on each side of the meson, in others a small, but distinct tubercle in the
same position ; cremaster (Fig. 5, 1) 1 mm. in length, with either |
two or three recurving hooks on each side.
Length 13 to 16 mm.; greatest width 5 mm.
The larvae of this species feed on poplar. Several of the larvae live together in a sort of tent formed by drawing two or three leaves together with threads of silk. They spin a loose co- coon, placing it among the leaves in captivity, but no cocoons were found during the summer’s collecting.
Genus APATELODES Packard.
Cephalic half of body to the caudal margin of the wings wider and thicker than the caudal half, which tapers gradually to the short blunt cremaster; body surface highly polished, none of the face-parts or appendages prominently elevated so that the surface is smooth and even; epicranial suture present, but faint; vertex about twice as long at lateral margin as at meson; fronto- clypeal suture sometimes indicated by an impressed line; ceph- alic margin of labrum about twice the width of the caudal margin; labial palpi represented by a small pentagonal area just
— 2) 2a
62 MarIne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
caudad of the labrum; antennae broader at the proximal end, where they slightly exceed the width of the prothoracic legs, and tapering gradually to a pointed tip; maxillae one-third the length of the wings, their proximo-lateral angles separated from the eye-pieces by almost the width of the latter; legs of about the usual length, the prothoracic legs adjacent on the meson caudad of the maxillae for a distance equal to the length of the maxillae; mesothoracic legs meeting just caudad of the pro- thoracic ones; wings adjacent on the meson for a short distance caudad of the mesothoracic legs; mesal length of the prothorax slightly more than half that of the mesothorax which is shorter than usual in the notodontids; metathorax equal in length to the first abdominal segment ; abdomen very finely, sparsely punc- tate, some of the segments with a flanged plate or ridge along the cephalic margin which is interrupted by deep pits, segments 4 to 6 with a similar plate along the caudal margin not inter- rupted by pits; cremaster, if present, very short, rough, and us- ually blunt.
APATELODES TORREFACTA Smith and Abbot. Fig. 6, G:
Color very dark reddish brown; head usually smooth and highly polished, sometimes roughened around the labrum; an- tennae ending slightly cephalad of the prothoracic legs; thorax with a few impressed lines and punctures; prothorax always with a small group of punctures in the caudo-lateral angle near the spiracle; mesothoracic spiracle with an elevated caudal mar- gin and caudad of this a slight depression; abdominal segments 2 to 7 with an elevated cephalic ridge interrupted by pits, and sparsely covered with very fine punctures and a few striations in the spiracular region; segments 8 to 10 with a very few punc- tures; cremaster very short, less than 1 mm., rugose and scarce- ly bifurcate at tip.
Length 20 to 22 mm.; greatest width 9 mm.
The larva of this species has been taken in Maine on ash, beach, plum, oak, sassafras and various species of Rubus. It is very hairy, somewhat like a “woolly bear” and light grey in color with two long pencils of hairs on the thorax and one on the eighth abdominal segment. It enters the ground to pupate
Pupar oF SoME MAINne Species oF NOTODONTOIDEA 63
and there makes an earthen cell. The pupa is easily recognized by the peculiar “bordered” appearance of the abdominal seg- ments.
Genus HARPYIA Ochsenheimer.
Body distinctly depressed, elliptical in outline; front elevat- ed at meson to accommodate the slight crest of the adult; fronto- clypeal suture indicated laterad by a slight furrow; invaginations for the anterior arms of the tentorium large and distinct ; clypeo- labral suture indicated by a furrow; labrum nearly as long as broad, the caudal margin slightly narrowed; genae elevated ; an- tennae elevated with the proximal half almost twice the width of the prothoracic legs, then rapidly narrowing to about one- fourth of this width, ending slightly caudad of the prothoracic legs; maxillae one-third the length of the wings; prothoracic and mesothoracic legs of the usual length and both meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae; wings meeting on the meson caudad of the mesothoracic legs; mesal length of the prothorax slightly more than half that of the mesothorax, and that of the metathorax one-sixth that of the mesothorax; abdominal seg- ments punctate; no cremaster present.
HARPYIA BOREALIS Boisduvyal. Bigs 5, -):
Color reddish or yellowish brown; surface smooth and dull; head,- thorax and appendages with fine striations more promi- nent on the prothorax and front; antennae with a row of minute tubercles along the middle line; maxillae with the proximo- lateral angles separated from the eye-pieces by a distance equal to the width of the eye-pieces; prothorax with a protuberance at each cephalo-lateral angle, probably indicating the scar of larval protuberances; mesothoracic spiracle slit-like; abdomen finely, sparsely punctate on the dorsum of the first eight seg- ments, the remainder of the surface smooth; spiracles lenticular, usually margined by a black line.
Length 16 to 18 mm.; greatest width 7 mm.
The larvae of this species have been taken in Maine from poplar.
64 Marine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Sration. 1917.
The larvae of this species belong to the group popularly known as horntails, on account of the long tail-like projections from the caudal end of the body. Harpyia borealis has two of these. The body is yellowish in color, the dorsal part nearly all dark brown. They feed on wild cherry. The larvae are found early in September and pupate about the last of the month. The cocoon is very thick and tough and usually spun against the side of the tree, where it resembles an excrescence on the bark.
Genus DATANA Walker.
Body always with an elevation at the cephalic end between the proximal ends of the antennae evidently to accommodate the crest of the imago; front prominently elevated, the elevation roughened with deep transverse striations and deeply punctate along the lateral margins; labrum also elevated, more promi- nently on the cephalic half; mandibular area sometimes elevat- ed; glazed eye-piece always very narrow, scarcely more than a line along the mesal margin of the sculptured eye-piece; an- tennae at proximal end wider than the prothoracic legs and tap- ering gradually to a pointed tip, usually about two-thirds the length of the wings; maxillae from one-half to three-fifths the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles extending to the eye-pieces; labial palpi entirely concealed; legs of the usual length, the mesothoracic pair always meeting on the meson cau- dad of the maxillae; wings always adjacent on the meson cau- dad of the mesothoracic legs; mesothorax shorter than usual so that the thoracic segments are only one-fourth the. total length of the body; mesal length of the prothorax one-half that of the mesothorax, the metathorax about one-sixth of the same length; thorax and abdomen always punctate; dorsum of abdo- men always showing a deep furrow between segments nine and ten, its caudal margin serrate; cremaster short, bifurcate, each half bearing two or more short spinous projections.
There are at least four species of Datana found in Maine, and two of these Datana ministra and Datana integerrima may become serious pests. The other two species are comparatively rare as far as our records for the state show. While the pupae of this genus are very distinctive, the species are very closely related and the characters available for their separation are
PupaE oF SoME MAINE SPECIES OF NOTODONTOIDEA 65
somewhat variable: The teeth on the furrow between the ninth
and tenth abdominal segments vary considerably, but in general
follow the same arrangement. The following table may serve to separate the species:
a. Prothoracic legs always extending as far caudad as the maxillae, or meeting on-the meson caudad of them; furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments with the teeth on the caudal margin all short and approxi- mately of equal length; pupae normally less than 20 mm. in length.
b. Dorsum of tenth abdominal segment not punctate; caudal margin of the furrow between the ninth and tenth ab- dominal segments scarcely elevated; surface usually shining and polished. angust.
bb. Dorsum of tenth abdominal segment punctate as the
remaining segments except perhaps a small area near
meson; caudal margin of the furrow between the ninth
and tenth abdominal segments always considerably
elevated; surface dull. integerrima.
aa. Prothoracic legs not extending as far caudad as the max-
illae, at least 1 mm. apart; furrow between the ninth and
tenth abdominal segments with the teeth on the caudal
margin uneven, and longer near the meson; pupae nor- mally over 20 mm. in length.
b. Crest on the front with a prominent longitudinal carinate ridge on the meson and a distinct furrow on each side; abdomen with medium punctures; each half of the cre- master with three projections. major.
bb. Crest on the front without longitudinal ridges or fur- rows; abdomen with large shallow punctures; each half of the cremaster with two projections.
muinistra.
DATANA ANGUSII Grote and Robinson.
Fig. 5, D and E.
Color bright reddish brown; crest prominent, always ru- gose with deep transverse striations and punctures, and usually with two longitudinal furrows; face-parts and appendages with transverse striations, much shallower than those of the crest
66 Martner AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
and not noticeably punctate; antennae ending just cephalad of the mesothoracic legs; maxillae slightly more than half the length of the wings, usually about four-sevenths; prothoracic legs normally ending opposite the maxillae; cephalic margin of prothorax considerably elevated as seen in lateral view; pro- thorax with a distinct median carinate ridge, a similar but less prominent ridge on the metathorax; abdomen with medium punctures, larger along the cephalic margin of the movable _segments; the surface irregular with fine ridges and some ir- regular depressions so that it does not appear even; first three abdominal segments broadly elevated along the meson; furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal segments without prom- inent teeth, the teeth all about the same size; ninth abdominal segment with few punctures, the tenth smooth; each half the cremaster (Fig. 5, E) with a large, rather blunt mesal projec- tion and a smaller, more pointed lateral one.
Length 15 to 18 mm.; greatest width 5 mm.
The larvae of this species feed on walnut and hickory. They pupate in the ground, each larva making a somewhat oval cell, without spinning a cocoon.
DATANA MAJOR Grote and Robinson. Fig. 5, F.
Color bright reddish brown; crest very prominent with two longitudinal furrows and deep transverse striations, the lateral margins punctate; face-parts and appendages with irregular, transverse striations’ and depressions; antennae meeting on the meson caudad of the mesothoracic legs; maxillae slightly more than half the length of the wings; prothoracic legs much shorter than the maxillae; mesothoracic legs meeting on the meson just caudad of the maxillae; cephalic margin of prothorax not ele- vated; prothorax and metathorax very slightly elevated along the meson; abdomen rather coarsely punctate and with small indeterminate depressions, both transverse and longitudinal; furrow between the nmth and tenth segments edged with black, the caudal margin elevated and with uneven teeth ; both ninth and tenth abdominal segments punctate like the remaining segments ; each half of the cremaster (Fig. 5, F) with three equal projec- tions.
PupPAE OF SoME MAINE SpEcIES oF NoTODONTOIDEA 67
Length 25 to 27 mm.; greatest width 8 mm.
The larvae of this species feed on certain species of Vac- cinium, the common blueberries and deerberry, also on An- dromeda. As its name implies it is the largest species of the genus. The method of pupation is probably the same as for the other species of Datana, but it has not been observed by the writer.
DATANA INTEGERRIMA Grote and Robinson. Big. 5, (G:
Color dark brown; crest not very prominent, the longitud- inal furrows not deep or well defined ; face-parts and appendages very rough with impressed lines and other surface sculpturing ; antennae never meeting on the meson nor extending as far cau- dad as the mesothoracic legs ; maxillae about one-half the length of the wings and slightly longer than the prothoracic legs ; meso- thoracic legs meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae;
median line of the prothorax and metathorax slightly elevated ; thorax noticeably punctate among the transverse striations ; ab- dominal segments rather finely punctate, with few other mark- ings; furrow between the ninth and tenth segments edged with black, the caudal margin elevated and almost evenly toothed; both ninth and tenth abdominal segments punctate; each half of the cremaster with three short, almost equal projections.
Length 17 to 19 mm.; greatest width 6 mm.
The larvae of this species feed on walnut, hickory and oak. They are found in large companies and always keep together while feeding. They pupate in the ground.
DATANA MINISTRA Walker. Higa Seb:
Color bright reddish brown, ,sometimes yellowish brown; crest on front seldom showing longitudinal furrows; face-parts and appendages rugose with indeterminate transverse striations, the appendages less rugose than the face-parts; maxillae three- fifths the length of the wings or a trifle shorter, always longer than the prothoracic legs; cephalic margin of prothorax slightly
——
68 MatIne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
elevated ; median line of prothorax and metathorax slightly ele- vated but not carinate; abdomen coarsely punctate, the punc- tures larger along the cephalic margin of each movable segment, and with scarcely any other markings; furrow between segments nine and ten edged with black, the teeth coarse and largest near the meson; caudal margin of furrow elevated; eighth and ninth abdominal segments always punctate; cremaster usually with two short spinous projections on each half.
Length about 23 mm. varying but little; greatest width 7 mm.
Most larvae of Datana ministra have been collected from apple in this state, although it feeds on a variety of other trees. The larva enters the ground to pupate. It spins no cocoon, but forms an earthen cell in which silk threads are seldom present.
Genus SYMMERISTA Hubner.
Head distinctly narrower than the thorax; body surface punctate, even on the appendages, though presenting a polished appearance, and without impressed lines or other markings; clypeal region slightly elevated; invaginations for the anterior arms of the tentorium very distinct; labrum almost semicircular in outline; glazed eye-piece one-fourth the width of the sculp- tured eye-piece and bounded mesally by an impressed black line; maxillae about nine-tenths the length of the wings, the tips of the antennae meeting just caudad of them on the mes- on; antennae considerably wider at the proximal end, but their greatest width is not equal to that of the prothoracic leg; pro- thoracic and mesothoracic legs of the usual length, never meet- ing on the meson; wings meeting on the meson for a short dis- tance caudad of the antennae; mesal length of prothorax one- third that of the mesothorax and the metathorax one-fourth of the same length; cremaster short, slightly bifurcate, and bear- ing hooked setae.
SYMMERISTA ALBIFRONS Smith and Abbot.
Fig. 6, A and B.
Color dark chestnut-brown; mesal half of the genae and a small area adjoining the cephalic margin of the prothorax
: Pupar oF SomE Matne Species or NoropoNTOIDEA 69
highly polished and without punctures; punctures on the front black, and more irregular in outline than on the remainder of the body surface; mesothoracic spiracles with both margins elevat- ed, the caudal margin slightly more so than the cephalic, and black’ in color; movable abdominal segments with the cephalic margin more densely punctate than the remainder and with large lunate punctures ; cephalic margin separated from the remainder of the segment by a distinct ridge, and just caudad of this a row of large black punctures ; abdominal spiracles (Fig. 6, B) elevat- ed along the cephalic margin, the openings somewhat crescent- shaped and directed caudad ; cremaster less than 1 mm. in length, rugose with longitudinal ridges, each point of the bifurcation bearing three hooked setae. — Length 17 to 21 mm.; greatest width 5 to 7 mm.
The larvae of Symmerista albifrons are striped longitudin- ally with black and red and have a prominent red hump near the caudal end of the body. They spin a thin, tough cocoon between leaves, and are usually found on the surface of the ground under the tree on which the larvae fed. The larvae feed on oak and maple. They appear late in the season and pupate in September.
Genus SCHIZURA Doubleday.
Body of usual type, sometimes with a projection at the cephalic end; surface appearing smooth and polished ; epicranial suture visible in some species ; antennae with the greatest width greater than that of the prothoracic legs, narrowed rapidly and forming a long pointed tip, never quite reaching the caudal mar- gin of the wings; maxillae always more than three-fifths the length of the wings, but never reaching their caudal margin, the caudo-lateral angles always reaching the glazed eye-piece, sometimes extending beyond; mesal length of prothorax one- half that of the mesothorax; mesonotum with a row of deep elongate pits along the caudal margin of the wings with smooth, square black areas between; metathorax with its mesal length about one-fourth that of the mesothorax; abdomen with the first eight segments punctate; cremaster entirely bifurcate, each half somewhat boot-shaped, the lateral margins of the cremaster subparallel.
70 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 1917.
The species of Schizura may be separated by the following table:
a. Maxillae always more than seven-eighths the length of the wings; cephalic end of body blunt and only slightly pro- jecting between the antennae; abdominal segments 5 to 7 with the punctures distinctly larger and more numer- ous along the cephalic margin; body never with prominent tubercle scars on the dorsum of the mesothorax, meta- thorax, and first abdominal segments. ipomede.
aa. Maxillae five-sixths the length of the wings; cephalic
end of body with a prominent, slightly bifurcate pro- jection; abdominal segments 5 to 7 with the punctures of approximately the same size and not much more nu- merous along the cephalic margin; body with prominent tubercle scars on the dorsum of the mesothorax, meta- thorax and first abdominal segment. concimna.
SCHIZURA IPOMEAE Doubleday.. igeo) gb
Color bright yellowish brown; body with a slight projec- tion at the cephalic end between the proximal ends of the anten- nae; epicranial suture visible for a short distance adjacent to each antenna in the majority of specimens; face-parts and ap- pendages smooth and polished, with very few punctures or oth- er surface markings; mandibular area) slightly elevated; anten- nae ending just caudad of the mesothoracic legs, but never meet- ing on the meson; maxillae more than seven-eighths the length of the wings, the caudo-lateral angles always extending to the eye-pieces ; sculptured eye-piece distinguished by its impressed lines and slightly wider than the other; thoracic segments with a few fine punctures; mesothorax without punctures as in S. concimna, but with short, transverse, impressed lines on each side the meson; caudal margin of mesonotum with seven pits and six square black polished areas between; abdominal seg- ments sparsely covered with very fine punctures except for a band along the cephalic margin of segments 5 to 7, which is densely and rather coarsely punctate; first abdominal segment often with a small rounded tubercle, or at least a tubercle scar on the meson showing the location of the prominent larval pro-
PuprarE oF SomME Marine Species or NotodONTOIDEA 71
jection; abdominal spiracles slightly produced, the openings somewhat crescent-shaped; eighth abdominal segment with a dark tubercle scar on each side of the meson; cremaster about 1 mm. in length, the lateral margins subparallel, the mesal mar- gins with two projections.
Length 15 to 20 mm.; greatest width 4 mm.
The larvae of this species has been collected only on maple, although it is reported from oak, elm and several other trees. The larvae enter the soil to pupate and there spin a thin cocoon which is covered with particles of sand or soil. The pupae of this species closely resemble those of certain species of Hetero- campa notably H. bilineata.
SCHIZURA CONCINNA Smith and Abbot. The Red-humped Apple-worm. Fig. 5, A.
Color chestnut brown; body with a prominent median ce- phalic projection which is slightly bifurcate; face-parts and appendages smooth and polished, without markings except for a few transverse impressions; antennae not extending as far cau- dad as the mesothoracic legs, which are usually 1 mm. longer;
-maxillae five-sixths the length of the wings; scars of larval
projections prominent on each side the meson of the mesothorax, metathorax and first abdominal segment, where they often show as distinct tubercles, less prominent scars on the fourth abdom- inal segment, and occasionally scars visible on the other seg- ments but usually not distinct; caudal margin of mesonotum normally with nine pits and eight square, black, polished areas between; abdominal segments rather densely punctate with punctures of medium size, the punctures on the cephalic margin of segments 5 to 7 differing very little from those on the re- mainder of the segment; abdominal spiracles large, slightly pro- duced, the openings elliptical, the margins very dark brown; cremaster about one-half millimeter in length, bifurcate, each half oblong with a very slight projection at each angle and an- other on the mesal margin about half way to the distal end.
Length 10 to 12 mm.; greatest width 4 mm.
The red-humped apple caterpillar is often a serious pest in apple orchards. It also feeds on other fruit trees and a number of forest trees. The larvae feed mostly at the ends of the
Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT StaTiIon. 1917.
NI bo
branches and live in colonies. They have fine black and white longitudinal stripes on the body and near the cephalic end some short black projections with a prominent reddish hump on the fourth abdominal segment. They usually pupate under dead leaves and sticks at the base of the tree and begin to pupate the last of August or in the early part of September. They spin a very thin cocoon which is usually fastened between two dead leaves or some small sticks. There is only one brood in Maine and adults emerge from these pupae the following spring.
Genus HETEROCAMPA Doubleday.
Body slightly wider at the cephalic half, tapering gradually from the fourth abdominal segment to the cremaster; fronto-_ clypeal suture faintly mdicated; labrum somewhat triangular in outline, much narrower on the caudal margin; glazed eye- piece about one-half the greatest width of the sculptured eye- piece ; antennae more than seven-eighths the length of the wings; maxillae usually as long as the wings, but sometimes a little shorter, the proximo-lateral angles extending laterad to the eye- pieces ; prothoracic and mesothoracic legs visible and of the us- ual length; labial palpi never visible; wings adjacent on the meson below the maxillae but seldom touching; mesal length of prothorax about two-fifths that of the mesothorax; mesonotum with a row of deep pits along the caudal margin separated by smooth quadrangular areas; mesal length of metathorax one-fifth, that of the mesothorax; abdominal segments punctate ; cremaster bifurcate, each half somewhat boot-shaped.
HETEROCAMPA GUTTIVITTA Walker. The Saddled Prominent. Fig. 6, C and D.
Color very dark brown, often almost black; surface smooth and polished; head, thorax and appendages slightly roughene with fine, rather close striations excepting the genae and glazed eye-pieces which are highly polished; maxillae slightly longer than the antennae but never quite reaching the caudal margin of the wings; pits along the caudal margin of the mesonotum normally eight, but occasionally with only seven; mesothoracic spiracle with a smooth, slightly elevated area adjacent to its
Purse oF Some MAINE Species oF NoOTODONTOIDEA 73
caudal margin which has a small semicircular depressed area in the middle; abdomen finely but not coarsely punctate, the punctures slightly larger along the cephalic margin of the seg- ments; spiracles lenticular, slightly depressed; cremaster with the lateral margins subparallel, usually 1 mm. in length, some- times shorter ; a rugose area at base Ens cephalad by a nar- row, irregular carinate ridge.
Length 18 to 22 mm.; greatest width 6 mm.
The larvae of this species feed on beech, maple, and many other trees. They often become very numerous and during the years 1908 and 1909 became a serious pest in Maine and New Hampshire. A description of the larvae and their life history is given in Bulletin 161 of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. The larvae when full grown pupate in an earthen ceil, or among leaves at the base of the trees.
HETEROCAMPA BILINEATA Packard.
Color usually chestnut brown, sometimes darker; surface smooth and polished; head, thorax and appendages almost smooth, with a few slightly depressed lines; maxillae always reaching the caudal margin of the wings; pits along the caudal margin of the mesonotum usually eleven, occasionally only ten; mesothoracic spiracle with a very narrow elevation adjacent to the caudal margin, and caudad of this a slight depression; ab- domen rather coarsely punctate on the cephalic margin, the punctures smaller and farther apart on the remainder of the segment; abdominal spiracles lenticular but not depressed; cre- master with the lateral margins distinctly converging to the tip, usually less than 1 mm. in length, never with a rugose area at base.
Length 16 to 20 mm.; greatest width 5 mm.
The larvae of this species have been collected in Maine from oak, elm and linden. The larva enters the soil to pupate, where it spins a loose web of silk to which the particles of soil adhere, forming a sort of earthen cocoon.
Family PLATYPTERYGIDAE.
This family consists of four genera, and pupae of only two of these have been seen. The larvae of Oreta rosea were col-
calipers STI ERS ee ss
SE ERE ca Se
74 Maine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
lected, but were not reared to maturity. The pupae of the two genera vary considerably in some respects, but are very similar in others. They have the maxillae very short, about one-third the length of the wings. The legs are of normal length, both the prothoracic and mesothoraciec meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae. The antennae are about the width of the pro- thoracic legs at their proximal end and are gradually narrowed towards the tip. They are slightly longer than the mesothoracic legs. The tips of the metathoracic legs are always exposed.
The metathoracic wings are always visible on the ventral sur-
face of the body. They meet on the meson caudad of the meso-
thoracic legs and then separate to show the metathoracic legs.
_ They are also visible along the caudal margin of the mesothor-
acic wings. The thorax is of normal length and the mesothor-
acic spiracles are slit-like. The abdomen is punctate, with a
dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth segments.
This furrow is never as well-defined as in the Geometridae. The
abdominal spiracles are usually quite large and in a straight line.
No spiracular furrows are present. A cremaster is always pres-
ent and may or may not have hooked setae.
So far as known the members of this family do not pupate in the ground, but in a thin cocoon, or attached to a web of silk by the cremaster. The genera described here may be separated as follows:
a. Cremaster with prominent hooked setae; prothorax with a prominent median ridge which shows as a median cephal- ic projection on the ventral surface; body densely covered with whitish bloom. Falcaria.
aa. Cremaster without prominent hooked setae; prothorax
without a prominent median ridge, the front having two prominent cephalic projections; body never with bloom on any part of its surface. Drepana.
Genus FALCARIA Haworth.
Body of usual shape, and densely covered with a whitish bloom; face-parts slightly elevated, an irregular tubercle on the front adjacent to the proximal end of each antenna; caudal portion of the clypeal region distinctly elevated to form a large rounded tubercle; prothoracic leg extending cephalad between
Pupar or Some Marne Spectres or NoroDONTOIDEA 75
the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna; antennae about seven- eighths the length of the wings, the distal end of each curved slightly laterad, widest at the cephalic end where they exceed the greatest width of the prothoracic legs and narrowed gradually to half this width at the distal end; maxillae slightly more than one-third the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles never extending to the eye-pieces ; labial palpi entirely concealed ; prothoracic legs three-fifths the length of the wings, the distal third of their length meeting on the meson caudad of the max- illae ; mesothoracic legs about five-sixths the length of the wings, and meeting on the meson caudad of the prothoracic legs for about the same distance; tips of the metathoracic legs showing on the meson between the wings; metathoracic wings exposed on the ventral surface, meeting on the meson just caudad of the mesothoracic wings and extending along the mesal margin of the mesothoracic wings to their caudal margin, and visible most of the way across to the lateral margin; prothorax with a prom- inent ridge on the meson, visible in ventral view; mesal length of prothorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax; mesothoracic spiracles slit-likke; metathorax shorter than usual, its mesal length one-sixth that of the mesothorax; abdominal segments 1 to 8 with medium sized punctures and sparsely covered with small curved spines which are more numerous near the spiracles and the scars of the ventral prolegs, the transverse conjunctiva covered with small spines or spinous processes; body setae aris- ing from the bases of the larger spines; dorsal furrow present between the ninth and tenth segments; abdominal spiracles shghtly sunken, lenticular in outline, the openings elliptical ; cremaster triangular in outline, longer than broad and ending in a group of stout hooked setae.
This genus imcludes a single species, Falcaria bilineata, found throughout the Atlantic states.
FALCARIA BILINEATA Packard.
Bice Ow Ee andakt
Color dark brown, but covered with dense, rather flocculent, whitish bloom; head, thorax and appendages considerably rough- ened with indeterminate, transverse impressed lines; labrum somewhat quadrangular, the caudal margin slightly notched;
———
76 Matne AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT Station. 1917.
clypeal region elevated to form a prominent quadrangular tu- bercle bearing two prominent setae; tubercle at the proximal end of each antenna also bearing prominent setae; antennae tuberculate, the three rows of tubercles arranged transversely ; surface of thorax more roughened than that of the head and with a small, irregular tubercle at the base of each important seta; dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth abdominal seg- ments distinct, the caudal margin not more strongly chitinized ‘and toothed as in the Geometridae; tenth segment (Fig. 6, F) with a distinct V-shaped depression at the proximal end of the cremaster, the triangular area between considerably more el- evated than the remainder of the segment; cremaster triangular in outline, rugose, the lateral margins convex, and narrowed to a rounded tip, then flaring suddenly on each side to form a spiny process which is much shorter than the stout curved setae; four stout hooked setae inserted at the meson at the caudal end of the cremaster and one inserted on each side on the ventral sur- face just caudad of the lateral projections of the cremaster.
Length about 12 mm.; greatest width 4 mm.
The larvae of this species were collected on the leaves of gray birch June 26. They are peculiar in that they have no well developed anal prolegs. The last segment bears a cylindri- cal projection which sticks up and away from the surface of the leaf. The body is roughened and somewhat granular with some wart-like projections on the mesothorax and metathorax and the second abdominal segment. The colors are yellowish or golden brown, with darker brown markings. They spin a thin yellowish cocoon which is usually fastened to the under side of the leaf. Often the leaf is curled over the cocoon so as to con- ceal it. The pupae are at first a bright yellow brown, but after a day turn dark brown and the bloom appears. The adults emerged July 23.
Genus DREPANA Schrank.
Body of usual shape with two prominent cephalic projec- tions; face-parts not prominently elevated, the labrum being slightly more convex than the remainder; eye-pieces reached only by the prothoracic leg which extends for a*short distance between the sculptured eye-piece and the antenna; antennae about four-fifths the length of the wings, widest at the proximal
Pupar oF Some Maine Species oF NoTopONTOIDEA - 77
end, where they equal the width of the prothoracic legs; taper- ing gradually to a pointed tip; maxillae about one-third the length of the wings, the proximo-lateral angles never extending to the eye-pieces; labial palpi entirely concealed; prothoracic legs almost three-fifths the length of the wings, meeting on the meson caudad of the maxillae, for about two-fifths of their length; mesothoracic legs a little shorter than the antennae, meeting on the meson for about the same distance as the prothor- acic legs; tips of metathoracic legs exposed between the meta- thoracic wings; metathoracic wings meeting on the meson cau- dad of the mesothoracic legs and extending along the mesal margin of the mesothoracic wings to their caudal margin, be- low which they are visible for the greater part of their length; mesal length of prothorax two-fifths that of the mesothorax; mesothoracic spiracles slit-like; metathorax short, its mesal length only one-third that of the prothorax; abdominal seg- ments 1 to 8 punctate, the punctures thickest along the cephalic margin of the movable segments ; abdominal spiracles lenticular in outline, the openings elliptical; cremaster triangular, the dis- tal end widened out and somewhat spherical.
This genus includes but one eastern species Drepana arcuata which is found throughout the Atlantic States.
DREPANA ARCUATA Walker. Biges Oj:
Color on head, thorax, and appendages dark brown except the tips of the cephalic projections which are reddish brown, the abdomen dull green mottled with dark brown, the coloring darkest on the dorsum; head, thorax and appendages consider- ably roughened with indeterminate transverse impressed lines ; cephalic projections triangular, their tips slightly curved dorsad, situated on the front adjacent to the proximal ends of the an- tennae ; glazed eye-pieces, clypeus and front smooth and polished ; thoracic segments with a slightly carinate median line; abdo- men with the first eight segments punctate, the remainder smooth ; dorsal furrow between the ninth and tenth segments not distinct forming an indistinct V-shaped depression at the base of the cremaster; cremaster slightly rugose, the basal part triangu-
78
MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
lar, then a narrow, cylindrical portion which expands into a wider, knob-like end with a row of inconspicuous projections on the dorsal surface.
A pupa of this species was collected from white birch, Aug- ust 3. The cremaster was entangled in a web of silk on the underside of a leaf, but there was no cocoon present. The adult emerged August 15. ;
The larvae of these are dark red above and have a pair of prominent tubercles on the first abdominal segment.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
a. antennae
al-al0. abdominal segments 1-10.
ao. anal opening.
at. invaginations for the anterior arms of the tentorium.
cl. clypeus.
cm. cephalic margin of an abdominal segment.
cr. cremaster.
es. epicranial suture.
fe front.
fal femur of the prothoracic leg.
ge. glazed eye-piece.
go. genital opening.
1b. labrum.
li prothoracic leg.
22 mesothoracic leg.
33 metathoracic leg.
Ip. labial palpi.
ms. mesothorax.
msp mesothoracic spiracle.
mt. metathorax.
mx maxillae.
p. prothorax.
S. spiracle.
se. sculptured eye-piece.
sf. spiracular furrow.
ts. tubercle scar.
Vv. vertex.
w 1 mesothoracic wing.
w 2 metathoracic wing.
Fig. 2, A to I. A Hypothetical pupa, ventral view. B Hypothetical pupa, dorsal view. C Cosymbia lumenaria, ventral view, female.
res =, t
Me Ot
Pupar oF Some MAINE Species oF NoToDONTOIDEA 79
Sicya macularia, ventral view, male.
Ania limbata, ventral view, male.
Cleora pampinaria, ventral view, female.
Sicya macularia, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster. Ania limbata, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster. Cleora pampinaria, spiracle and spiracular furrow.
Fig. 3, A to F.
AmhoawPD>
Erannis tiliaria, dorsal view. , Erannis tiliaria, ventral view, male. Paleacrita vernata, ventral view, female. Paleacrita vernata, lateral view.
Aplodes mimosaria, ventral view, female. Diastictis ribearia, ventral view, male.
Fig. 4, A to K.
AS So GS esa bit
Hydria undulata, ventral view, male.
Sabulodes lorata, ventral view, female.
Cingilia catenaria, ventral view, female.
Hydria undulata, dorsal view of fifth abdominal segment. Sabulodes lorata, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster. Cingilia catenaria, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster. Diastictis anataria, dorsal view of cremaster.
Diastictis anataria, ventral view of cremaster.
Diastictis ribearia, dorsal view of cremaster.
Diastictis ribearia, ventral view of cremaster.
Sabulodes transversata, dorsal view of tenth segment and
* cremaster.
leiteg Gy UN toy Ale
Fig. 6,
TOAMUADeP >See ODD aAe>
Schizura concinna, ventral view, female.
Schizura ipomeac, dorsal view.
Melalopha inclusa, ventral view, female.
Datana angusii, ventral view, male.
Datana angusti, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster.
Datana major, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster.
Datana integerrima, dorsal view of tenth segment and cre- master.
Datana ministra, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster.
Melalopha inclusa, cremaster.
Harpyia borealis, ventral view, male.
Om Els
Symmerista albifrons, ventral view, male.
Symmerista albifrons, abdominal spiracle.
Heterocampa guttivitta, ventral view, female. Heterocampa guttivitta, dorsal view.
Drepana arcuata, ventral view, female.
Falcaria bilineata, dorsal view of tenth segment and cremaster. Apatelodes torrefacta, ventral view, male.
Falcaria bilinedta, ventral view, female.
=
PuPAE OF SOME MAINE SPECIES
83
Specites oF NoropONTOIDEA
Pupart or Some Marne
Imes By
BULLETIN 260
BARN AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN 1916.
REPORTED BY CHAS. D. WOODS.
The work of investigation at the two experiment station farms (Aroostook Farm, Presque Isle, and Highmoor Farm, Monmouth) is planned by the Director, the Biologists, the Plant Pathologist and the Entomologist. The results of the more scientific phases of the studies are reported from time to time in the bulletins, but it always happens that there are results obtained that lie somewhat outside of the lines of work of any of the Station specialists. Some of the more popular and prac- tical results are here reported. The carrying out of these ex- periments and the taking of the requisite notes devolved upon different members of the Staff.
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS FROM FIELD EXPERIMENTS
Field experiments at the best are somewhat uncertain be- cause there are so many factors of soil, temperature, rainfall, and the like, that affect the results which are beyond the control of the experimenter. In like manner ordinary feeding and other experiments with animals are outside of laboratory control and are beset with uncertainties that render conclusions more or less uncertain. It is, therefore, always planned at this Sta- tion to carry the same experiment under as nearly as possible the same conditions through a series of years before attempt- ing to draw any very definite conclusions. The results here re- ported should be considered more in the light of reports of progress than of completed studies. It may happen that the teaching that a single year’s results seem to warrant may be reversed by the repetition of the experiment in other years under different climatic or other conditions.
ae! om
86 BarRN AND Frie_p EXPERIMENTS IN 1916
ARE SHEEP PROFITABLE IN WINTER?
The Station Council, at its meeting in April 1914, authorized the purchase of grade sheep sufficient to stock Highmoor Farm for the purpose of studying the question as to whether sheep can or cannot be profitably raised in Maine. The sheep were not to be of a fancy type, or be pure bred so that none of the animals could be sold at a fancy price. Nor were they to be early bred to produce “hot house” lambs for the high price . of the early market. They were to be just plain sheep such as any ordinary farmer could carry. While care was to be exercised in handling the sheep, no high priced labor was to be used. Nor was a special “shepherd” to be employed.
The sheep are grade Hampshire, but are so nearly pure Hampshire that only an expert could tell them from pure bloods. They are as fine a flock of sheep as one cares to see. The farm superintendent is an experienced man with sheep and they have excellent care. A year ago the results of the first year’s trial were published in Bulletin 246. This trial showed that the sheep were kept at a large loss. This publication led to the receipt of many letters and to the publication of some newspaper articles. It was evident from these that many owners thought they were making money from sheep. But no one was found who was keeping a flock of about 100 sheep who knew from ac- tual figures whether they were or were not being kept at a profit. At the recent convention of the State Dairymen’s As- sociation a paper was read that showed a profit on a small flock, but many of the data cited were estimates.
It is prcbably true that on most farms a few sheep would be profitable, because they would be cared for in time that other- wise would not be profitabiy employed, and the sheep would be fed more or less. of unmarketable produce and hay. A set of books in which everything was charged and credited would probably not show the balance on the credit side. Neverthe- less, most farmers who are equipped for them would be better off with a few sheep, because of the salvage of time and ma- terials that might otherwise be wasted. Thus with sheep it is the same as it is in the case of a fey swine, a small flock of hens, a small area devoted to garden crops, etc. With certain well known exceptions, very few of the farm items, charging
MaInE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917. 87
fabor at what it costs, food at what it is worth, and taking fixed charges into account, would show book profit. Nevertheless, on every hand there are farmers who with incomes derived from small flocks, small herds, and small areas devoted to crops, live comfortably, educate their children, and accumulate some bank surplus.
There will always be an expense for fitting up and main- taining pastures, buildings, etc., for sheep that will vary on different farms and with different farmers. The overhead charges, such as interest, taxes, and the like, will also vary with varying conditions. In an experiment conducted by the Station, where it is necesgary to keep individual records, buttons for the ears and time involved in note taking are expense items that the ordinary farmer need not be at. For these and similar reasons © the cost of fencing the pastures, erecting shelters in the pas- tures, fitting up the barns for winter quarters, expenses for pip- ing water, water troughs, sheep dipping tanks, shearing ma- chine, gas engine, root cutter, rent of land for pastures and crops for the sheep, while necessary expenses that must be taken into accout by the practical farmer, are omitted from the following statement. The amounts included are the inventory value of the sheep, the cost of labor in caring for the sheep, cost of the food purchased, the value of the hay and straw at the barn, the cost to grow the roots used. The credits are the sheep and wool sold and the inventory at the end of the year.
As reported in Bullentin 246, the year as given ran from
July 1 to June 30. This is the fiscal year as prescribed by the
State Auditor, but is not a good one for an experiment of this kind which far more naturally begins and ends either with turning the sheep out to pasture in the spring, or, still better, with the housing of the sheep in the fall. In order to make it possible to include practically all the income from the sheep within the year, the duration of the year is changed so that it now runs for 12 months from the first of November, instead of the first of July. In order to compare fairly the first report as given has been changed so as to make it begin November 1, 1914, instead of July 1, 1914, as it was previously reported. The tabulations that follow give two years expenditures and receipts begining November 1, and ending October 31, for each year
88 BARN AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN 1916
Sheep Account for Vear Now. 1, ror4, to Oct. 31, 1915*
Inventory and Expenditures. PS3.EWOS tat 2S Orci ae Gear ert SEs Ee SUE Sele need $ 365.00 22 sewer lambs 1@) Soe ie et Ba ed a enae ) eeeee 66.00 SteDUCKS ate SZ oes ee PEs cue eS eo eee aa 75.00 Bran and middlings, 7000 pounds at $30 per ton............ 105.00 @il meal; 800 pounds at $37 pen tons eee 14.80 Cora meal2400) pounds at $32 per tone se eee 39.40 Gluten feed 100 pounds at $36 per tone =o = eee 1.80 Ground oats, 44 bushels at 55 cents per bushel... 2. 24.20 lay, 49:000 pounds at SIZ penton. == a) = ee 273.60 Straw, O,000 pounds; at so per tome 2). 1 ee 15.00 Turcnips, 55 bushels at 1@¢ a bushel] =) aa 51.50 DU S5 CC CE Ree ee ee ee eee 10.96 895 hours man labor on sheep at 1714¢ per hour... 156.62 3 hours orseclaborat 15¢ per hour 2 = ee A5 $1,198.33 Receipts and Inventory.
Sheep-andWlambs, soldi.) $ 115.69 Wooly! SOL es eeu iss Tu cal ee ao Se eae 170.09 DNAfs GMB et gS each a Aa ea SA ROR ete eS 36.00 A7old ewes on hand Oct. 31) 1915 2at Gos aes 235.00: 22 yearling ewes on hand Oct) 3i5) ll, at) S5.2 ee ee 110.00 S5,ewe Jambs onvhand: @ct oi 1Ola™ at Soren eee 99.00 3 registered bucksiom mandi@ct. sl, 1 loi 2 eee 75.00 IZOSS, ON Opera tlOn hOtayeaia ws ease me enone eae momen b/a:00 $1,198.33
*Pasturage, use of land for crops and buildings for summer shelter and winter housing, interest on investment and other overhead charges are not included in this account.
**Manure as valued by farm superintendent’s estimate when drawn from the barns and _ sheds.
Maine AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1917.
89
Sheep Account for Year Nov. 1, 1915, to Oct. 31, 1916*
Inventory and Expenditures.
W7eomeimaly purchase ewes at $5. ee Praeaminopewes: (lO l4 lambs) at) Sono 2 see memenvcr Clea lambs ator ets nn a a ao 3 registered bucks at $25 (Sold m January 1916)... 2 registered bucks at $25 (Purchased in October 1916) Bran, and mixed feed, 5,500 pounds at $27 per ton........... Wilivedl47o pounds at. $40 per ton. 22 Soruemeal, 1900 poundspat/ $3 per ton. 2) inten teed 200) pounds at $36 per tons Ground oats, 67.5 bushels at 65 cents per bushel... ileneeeomloonpounds at) S15 per tome a ek Rowen hay, 4,800 pounds at $12 per torr ececececccccccncen Simcmerc Oso pounds-at Go per tone. 2 ea ee ’ Purnips, 570 bushels at 15¢ Dore [isos ei Sulletpmless srtons at Sh per ton a PiascoWOs Viedicines, SISO). 2. uy eee Saleerpusielsvatjo¢. per bushel.) eee Somiomnsmmean’ labo at: (OG 2222) ook ye ieoailons casoline: at -27¢ per gallons Total
Receipts and Inventory
Wool Suecepmand lambs sold). 2... IU aN Vg No SR i 63 tons manure from pit } Seer qiceuecae
12 tons manure from sheds | 38 original purchase ewes )
7 1914 ewes OVpraltia Soe aed wR NS
22 1915 ewes )
EMmOloewevlatbs at Gone seek se ee Menesistered Elampshire) bucks at) $25.2 2 1 Hampshire buck obtained in exchange fot..............
AGENCE MlATIAD Seen e Siete ale ee i
OsSmOn (Operation™ 2 au Ese eet Aaa eas
Total
*Same as first foot note on page 88.
**This is the loss without allowing for value of manure.
cussion in text.
$ 235.00 110.00 99.00 75.00 50.00 74.25 9.50 29.45 3.60 43,88 361.01 28.80 21.69 85.50 12.00 7.50
70 153.54 5.13 $1,405.55
$ 255.91 491.08
335.00
60.00 50.00
6.00 207.56 $1,405.55
See dis-
90 BARN AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN 1916
THE EXPENDITURES
The inventory of the flock is at a much lower price than they could be purchased for or than they would be sold for. This bears only slightly on the experiment as the numbers of the sheep are kept fairly constant year after year. Rather more sheep were carried through the winter of 1915-16 than would usually be the case.
No account is taken of the feed consumed from the three pastures aggregating about 100 acres. Nor is rental charged for land used in growing crops such as rape and turnips for the use of the sheep. The concentrated feeds are charged at about the average cost for each year, but this dos not include freight or cartage. The hay and straw are priced at what they would have sold for at the barn each year. The turnips are charged at what it costs to grow them without any over- head charges. The season of 1915 was not a favorable one at Highmoor Farm for growing turnips and they cost a half as much again as they did the preceding year. A lessened yield and greater labor cost due to the character of the season explains this increase in cost of production. In 1914-15 the sheep were fed about 120 pounds of grain, 460 pounds of hay, and 320 pounds of turnips per head, and about 60 pounds of straw were used per sheep. In 1915-16 they were fed about 100 pounds of grain, 500 pounds of hay and 390 pounds of apples and turnips. The grain cost about $1.90, the hay $2.80, and the turnips $0.55 per head in 1914-15. In 1915-16 the grain cost about $1.40, the hay $3.75, and the turnips and apples nearly $1.00 per head. The total cost of food and straw in 1914-15 was about $5.35 per head, and in 1915-16 it was $6.40.
The only labor charged against the sheep is the actual time used in care, as feeding, shearing, etc. The work of keep- ing up pasture fences, buildings, making records, and other things incident to the experimental side that does not directly apply to the sheep, is not included in the tabulation. The cost for labor per sheep was, in round numbers, $1.50 each year. The total cost per head, for maintenance, excluding inventory for the 98 sheep in 1914-15, was $7.06 and in 1915-16 it was $8.04 for each of